Cropping Intensity in the Aral Sea Basin and Its Dependency from the Runoff Formation 2000–2012
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- To extract the regional irrigated cropland extent (iCE) in the ASB from annual MR-MODIS time series from 2000 to 2012 and to validate the result using multi-annual high-resolution (HR) Landsat-7 ETM+ covered reference sites;
- To use the same RS data sets and the iCE results for accurate mapping of cropland vegetation phenology (CVP) and cropping intensity (CI) in the ASB;
- To statistically evaluate the dependency of CI and the percentage of fallow cropland (PF) in the ASB from annual runoff formation in the upstream catchments of the Amu Darya and Syr Darya Rivers.
2. Study Region
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Overall Mapping Approach
3.2. Database and Preprocessing
3.2.1. MODIS Data for Regional Mapping
3.2.2. Landsat Data for Training and Validation
3.2.3. Secondary Data
3.3. Derivation of the Irrigated Cropland Extent
3.3.1. Local Scale Reference Data (HR-iCE)
3.3.2. Regional Scale Mapping (MR-iCE)
Extraction of Indicators
Generation of Thematic Masks
- If the total of wetland signals amounted to more than 10 years of the observation period (2000–2012), the respective pixel became part of the wetland mask, i.e., the raster value was set to 1. The wetland mask also included available secondary data (Section 3.2.3).
- A pixel was added to the uncropped area mask, if indication for either a water body, bare soil, or low vegetation was given throughout the observation period (2000–2012).
- If natural vegetation in the mountainous regions/winter wheat (spring peak & bare summer) or bare land were mapped in the indicator layers for the entire observation period, the pixel was included in the natural vegetation & rainfed agriculture mask.
- If the total of the crop signal layer (one high vegetation period indicating a crop signal in the annual MODIS-NDVI layerstack) amounted to 0, irrigation probability mask was also set to 0.
- In the KyzylOrda and the upper Amu Darya (Afghanistan, Tajikistan) regions, the discrimination between rice and wetland became possible by analyzing the 13 rice signal indicator layers (the rules are given in Table S1). All pixels where a rice signal occurred at least once within the observation period were assigned to the rice occurrence mask.
Knowledge-Based Data Integration
3.4. Derivation of the Cropping Intensity
3.4.1. Local Scale Reference Data (HR-CVP)
3.4.2. Regional Scale Mapping (MR-CVP)
3.5. Cropping Intensity and Upstream Runoff Formation
4. Results
4.1. Validation of Classification
4.2. Irrigated Cropland Extent and Cropping Intensity in the ASB 2000–2012
4.3. Cropping Intensity and Upstream Runoff Formation
5. Discussion
5.1. Methodological Approach
5.2. Assessment of CI in the ASB (2000–2012)
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ASB | Aral Sea Basin |
AVHRR | Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer |
CAREWIB | Central Asia Regional Water Information Base Project |
CART | Classification and Regression Tree |
CAWa project | Central Asian Waters project |
CE | Cropland Extent |
CI | Cropping Intensity |
CIGRID | Gridded Cropping Intensity (grids of 10 km × 10 km) |
CVP | Cropland Vegetation Phenology |
CZ | Classification Zone |
DEM | Digital Elevation Model |
DOY | Days of Year |
ENVI | Environment for Visualizing Images |
ETM+ | Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus |
FAO | Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |
GE | Google Earth |
GIS | Geographic information system |
HR | High Resolution |
HR-CI | High-Resolution Cropping Intensity |
HR-CVP | High-Resolution Cropl and Vegetation Phenology |
HR-iCE | High-Resolution Irrigated Cropland Extent |
iCE | Irrigated Cropland Extent |
MODIS | Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer |
MR | Moderate Resolution |
MR-CI | Moderate-Resolution Cropping Intensity |
MR-CVP | Moderate-Resolution Cropland Vegetation Phenology |
MR-iCE | Moderate-Resolution Irrigated Cropland Extent |
NDVI | Normalized Differenced Vegetation Index |
NIR | Near Infrared |
OA | Overall Accuracy |
OSM | Open Street Map |
PF | Percentage of Fallow Cropland |
RF | Random Forest |
RS | Remote Sensing |
SIC ICWC | Scientific-Information Center of the Interstate Coordination Water Commission of the Central Asia |
SLC | Scan Line Corrector |
SRTM | Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission |
TiSeG | Time-Series Generator |
TP | Transition Period |
USGS | United States Geological Survey |
WRS | World Reference System |
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CZs | Path-Row | Number of Available Scenes | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2000 | 2001 | 2002 | 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006 | 2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | 2012 | ||
1 | 152-32 | 3 (1) | 5 | 6 | 5 (4) | 11 | 12 | 11 | 11 | 11 | 7 (1) | 4 (2) | 6 | 8 |
5 | 153-34 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 2 (1) | 6 | 6 | 9 | 10 | 7 | 6 | 3 | 8 | 7 |
3,2 | 154-31 | 3 | 3 (1) | 3 (1) | 2 (2) | 8 | 6 | 6 | 5 | 6 (1) | 7 | 5 (1) | 4 | 7 |
2 | 154-32 | 3 | 2 (1) | 4 | 2 (1) | 6 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 5 | 7 |
6 | 156-32 | 3 | 2 (1) | 4 | 2 (3) | 8 | 10 | 6 | 5 (2) | 5 | 5 (1) | 4 | 7 | 6 |
6 | 156-33 | 4 | 4 (1) | 4 (2) | 4 | 9 | 10 | 9 | 8 | 7 | 6 (1) | 9 | 7 | 5 |
6 | 157-33 | 4 | 3 | 3 (1) | 3 | 8 | 6 | 6 | 8 | 4 | 7 | 7 | 5 | 9 |
4 | 158-29 | 4 (1) | 2 (1) | 3 | 1 (1) | 8 | 6 | 6 | 8 | 4 | 7 | 7 (4) | 5 (4) | 9 |
7 | 158-34 | 3 | 3 | 3 | 2 (1) | 6 | 8 | 6 | 8 | 7 | 4 | 6 | 6 | 2 (2) |
7 | 159-34 | 2 (2) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 2 (2) | 8 | 9 | 9 | 8 | 9 | 7 | 9 | 10 | 11 |
8 | 160-31 | 3 | 1 | 2 (1) | 3 (1) | 5 (1) | 4 (1) | 8 | 7 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 5 (1) | 8 |
8 | 161-30 | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 2 (1) | 7 | 9 | 5 | 8 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 8 |
Classification Zones | 1 | 2 & 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fergana | Tashkent/Syr Darya and Chardara, Aris | Kyzyl Orda | Upper Amu Darya | Zerafshan | Karakum Canal | Amu Darya Delta | |
No. of years | 9 | 11 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 12 | 10 |
Reference Site | CZ | Overall Accuracy | Landsat Area (ha) | MODIS (Aggregated) Area (ha) | MODIS Area (ha) | MODIS (Aggregated) vs. Landsat | MODIS (Classified) vs. MODIS (Aggregated) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
152-32 | 1 | 0.82 | 88,105 | 88,077 | 103,933 | 1.00 | 1.18 |
154-32 | 2 | 0.84 | 181,459 | 183,912 | 151,656 | 1.01 | 0.82 |
154-31 | 3 | 0.85 | 32,514 | 33,839 | 40,536 | 1.04 | 1.20 |
158-29 | 4 | 0.70 | 11,829 | 11,080 | 6903 | 0.94 | 0.62 |
153-34 | 5 | 0.88 | 43,629 | 44,596 | 51,754 | 1.02 | 1.16 |
156-32 | 6 | 0.91 | 15,293 | 15,040 | 21,816 | 0.98 | 1.45 |
156-33 | 6 | 0.94 | 93,468 | 92,579 | 107,153 | 0.99 | 1.16 |
157-33 | 6 | 0.86 | 36,926 | 40,579 | 46,859 | 1.10 | 1.15 |
159-34 | 7 | 0.87 | 64,130 | 67,033 | 91,434 | 1.05 | 1.36 |
158-34 | 7 | 0.87 | 69,450 | 69,078 | 99,000 | 0.99 | 1.43 |
160-31 | 8 | 0.88 | 68,654 | 72,570 | 84,888 | 1.06 | 1.17 |
161-30 | 8 | 0.82 | 103,302 | 105,937 | 112,224 | 1.03 | 1.06 |
Model | Classification Zone | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 & 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
2000 | x | 0.89 | x | 0.87 | 0.86 | 0.84 | 0.88 |
2001 | 0.98 | x | x | 0.95 | x | 0.89 | x |
2002 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.92 | 0.88 | 0.86 | x |
2003 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
2004 | 0.86 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.90 | 0.88 | 0.86 |
2005 | 0.86 | 0.96 | 0.91 | 0.96 | 0.88 | 0.86 | 0.88 |
2006 | 0.92 | 0.89 | 0.86 | 0.95 | 0.87 | 0.89 | 0.87 |
2007 | 0.96 | 0.93 | 0.89 | 0.96 | 0.98 | 0.91 | 0.89 |
2008 | 0.94 | 0.93 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.90 | 0.90 | 0.91 |
2009 | x | 0.93 | 0.91 | 0.93 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.91 |
2010 | x | 0.94 | x | 0.94 | 0.85 | 0.92 | 0.87 |
2011 | 0.97 | 0.94 | x | 0.92 | 0.88 | 0.99 | 0.92 |
2012 | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.84 | 0.88 | 0.91 |
All Years Merged | 0.90 | 0.92 | 0.91 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.87 | 0.87 |
Model | Classification Zone | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2 & 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | |
2000 | x | 0.97 | x | 0.93 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.99 |
2001 | 0.98 | x | x | 0.98 | x | 0.93 | x |
2002 | 0.96 | 0.99 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.90 | 0.93 | x |
2003 | x | x | x | x | x | x | x |
2004 | 0.91 | 0.99 | 0.96 | 0.96 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
2005 | 0.92 | 0.99 | 0.95 | 0.98 | 0.92 | 0.92 | 0.94 |
2006 | 0.95 | 0.95 | 0.94 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.96 | 0.93 |
2007 | 0.98 | 0.98 | 0.94 | 0.98 | 1.00 | 0.97 | 0.97 |
2008 | 0.96 | 0.99 | 1.00 | 0.98 | 0.93 | 0.99 | 0.96 |
2009 | x | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.97 | 0.93 | 0.98 | 0.97 |
2010 | x | 0.98 | x | 0.96 | 0.89 | 0.98 | 0.95 |
2011 | 0.99 | 0.98 | x | 0.98 | 0.92 | 1.00 | 0.97 |
2012 | 0.97 | 0.99 | 0.97 | 0.98 | 0.90 | 0.96 | 0.96 |
All Years Merged | 0.93 | 0.98 | 0.95 | 0.96 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.95 |
Classification Zone (CZ) | Average MR-CI |
---|---|
Fergana Valley (1) | 1.09 |
Tashkent/Syr Darya (2) | 1.05 |
Chardara, Aris (3) | 0.84 |
Kyzyl Orda (4) | 0.86 |
Syr Darya River (CZ 1–4) | 1.04 |
Upper Amu Darya (5) | 1.23 |
Zerafshan, Mid Amu Darya (6) | 0.95 |
Karakum Canal (7) | 0.53 |
Amu Darya Delta (8) | 0.78 |
Amu Dary River (CZ 5–8) | 0.83 |
Syr Darya | CZ 1 | CZ 2 | CZ 3 | CZ 4 | Catchment |
Upstream runoff vs. CIGRID | 0.0989 | 0.5275 | 0.3901 | 0.5934 * | 0.4176 |
Upstream runoff vs. PF | −0.4341 | −0.6374 * | −0.4011 | −0.5934 * | −0.6264 * |
Amu Darya | CZ 5 | CZ 6 | CZ 7 | CZ 8 | Catchment |
Upstream runoff vs. CIGRID | 0.6868 * | 0.5714 * | 0.7088 * | 0.6978 * | 0.6758 * |
Upstream runoff vs. PF | −0.7418 * | −0.6429 * | −0.5879 * | −0.6209 * | −0.6483 * |
© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
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Conrad, C.; Schönbrodt-Stitt, S.; Löw, F.; Sorokin, D.; Paeth, H. Cropping Intensity in the Aral Sea Basin and Its Dependency from the Runoff Formation 2000–2012. Remote Sens. 2016, 8, 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8080630
Conrad C, Schönbrodt-Stitt S, Löw F, Sorokin D, Paeth H. Cropping Intensity in the Aral Sea Basin and Its Dependency from the Runoff Formation 2000–2012. Remote Sensing. 2016; 8(8):630. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8080630
Chicago/Turabian StyleConrad, Christopher, Sarah Schönbrodt-Stitt, Fabian Löw, Denis Sorokin, and Heiko Paeth. 2016. "Cropping Intensity in the Aral Sea Basin and Its Dependency from the Runoff Formation 2000–2012" Remote Sensing 8, no. 8: 630. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8080630