Arctic Tundra Land Cover Classification on the Beaufort Coast Using the Kennaugh Element Framework on Dual-Polarimetric TerraSAR-X Imagery
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. The Impact of Climate Change on Arctic Tundra Landscapes
1.2. State of the Art for Arctic Tundra Landscape Monitoring with Synthetic Aperture Radar Data
1.3. The Kennaugh Element Framework as a Potential Tool to Monitor the Artic Tundra Landscape Scatter Mechanisms
1.4. Aim and Objectives
2. Materials
2.1. Area Description
2.2. Remote Sensing Data
2.3. Climate Data
2.4. In Situ and Reference Data
3. Methods
3.1. Pre-Processing of Polarimetric SAR Data
3.1.1. Processing Steps of the Traditional SAR Workflow
3.1.2. Processing Steps of the Kennaugh Element Framework
3.1.3. Theoretical Background of the Kennaugh Element Framework
3.2. Preparation of the Reference Dataset
3.2.1. Pre-Processing of the Optical Data
3.2.2. Image Segmentation
3.3. Classification
3.3.1. Land Cover Classification System
3.3.2. Preparation of the Predictor Variables
3.3.3. Random Forest Classifier
4. Results
4.1. Characterization of Land Cover Classes by In Situ Observations
4.2. Temporal Analysis of Backscatter Statistics
4.3. Multi-Temporal Land Cover Classification
5. Discussion
5.1. Comparison between the Sigma Nought and the Kennaugh Element Classification
5.2. Variable Importance of the Random Forest Classifier
5.3. Seasonal Backscatter Mechanisms at X-Band for Arctic Tundra Landscapes with Respect to Previous Findings
5.4. Comparison between the Kennaugh Element Classification and Other Arctic Tundra Land Cover Studies
6. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
ALD | Active Layer Depth |
CR | Cross-polarized Ratio |
CWCS | Canadian Wetland Classification System |
KE | Kennaugh Element |
KEF | Kennaugh Element Framework |
LCC | Land Cover Classification |
MDA | Mean Decrease Accuracy |
MSML | Multi-Looking Multi-Scale |
NEBN | Noise Equivalent Beta Nought |
NESZ | Noise Equivalent Sigma Nought |
OA | Overall Accuracy |
OOB | Out-Of-Bag |
PA | Producer’s Accuracy |
PFT | Plant Functional Types |
PolSAR | Polarimetric SAR |
RF | Random Forest |
SAR | Synthetic Aperture Radar |
SNR | Signal-to-Noise Ratio |
TDX | TanDEM-X |
TSX | TerraSAR-X |
UA | User’s Accuracy |
VMC | Volumetric Moisture Content |
WV-3 | Worldview-3 |
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Field Campaign | Date | Location | Datasets | Plot Count | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Komakuk Beach | 3–24 August 2019 | Top: 69°3619.22 N | Soil | 47 | ||
Bottom: 69°3211.59 N | Vegetation | 47 | ||||
Left: 140°1554.26 W | Landcover | 105 | ||||
Right: 140°533.68 W | ||||||
Product | Tile | Spatial Resolution | Registration | Count of GCP’s | vertical residual | vertical residual |
ArcticDEM | 42_18 | 2 m | ICEsat | 998 | −0.001 m | −0.062 m |
43_18 | 1018 | 0 m | −0.018 m | |||
TanDEM-X DEM | 10 m | |||||
Sensor | Acquisition Date | Spatial Resolution | Image Bands | |||
WV-3 | 12 July 2019 | 1.31 m | Coastal: 400–450 nm | Red: 630–690 nm | ||
Blue: 450–510 nm | Red Edge: 705–745 nm | |||||
Green: 510–580 nm | NIR-1: 770–895 nm | |||||
Yellow: 585–625 nm | NIR-2: 860–1040 nm | |||||
0.33 m | Panchromatic: 450–800 nm | |||||
Sensor | Acquisition Date | Spatial Resolution × | Mode | Incidence Angle | Polarization | NESZ |
TSX | 27 July 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 18 August 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.5 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 9 September 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 20 October 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 20 October 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 14 November 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
TSX | 6 December 2019 | 2.1 m × 2.3 m | Stripmap | 41.6 | HH/HV | −19 dB |
Class | Class Description | Reference Objects | Pixel Count | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Count | Area (m2) | Training | Validation | Total | |||
High-center polygon | HCP | Wetland polygon bog (often >40 cm surface peat) dominated by lichen and shrubs. Average shrub height < 20 cm | 61 | 108,552 | 3024 | 1295 | 4319 |
Low-center polygon | LCP | Wetland polygon fen (often >40 cm surface peat) dominated by graminoids | 39 | 59,152 | 1661 | 711 | 2372 |
Fen | F | Wetland stream fen or sloping fen (often >40 cm surface peat) dominated by graminoids | 11 | 19,296 | 537 | 230 | 767 |
Meadow | M | Riverine floodplain dominated by graminoids with mineral soils | 5 | 8790 | 245 | 104 | 349 |
Shrubs | Sh | Riverine floodplain dominated by woody shrubs with mineral soils. Average shrub height >40 cm | 12 | 14,113 | 398 | 170 | 568 |
Bare soil | BS | Exposed soil along the coast, lakes, and streams | 14 | 15,625 | 445 | 190 | 635 |
Fresh water | FW | Freshwater lakes, ponds, and streams | 19 | 39,995 | 1116 | 477 | 1593 |
Sea | S | Sea water | 8 | 14,586 | 411 | 176 | 587 |
Other | O | Anthropogenic structures | 10 | 15,003 | 423 | 181 | 604 |
Total | 179 | 295,114 | 8260 | 3534 | 11,794 |
Name | Description | Symbol | Source |
---|---|---|---|
HH | Sigma Nought intensity of the HH channel | HH | n/a |
HV | Sigma Nought intensity of the HV channel | HV | n/a |
cR | Cross-polarised ratio of the HH and HV channels. | cR | [53] |
Kennaugh Matrix element, total intensity | [36] | ||
Kennaugh Matrix element, difference between co- and cross-pol intensity | [36] | ||
Mean | Local mean of the co-occurrence matrix | M | [70] |
Variance | Local variance of the co-occurrence matrix | V | [70] |
Homogeneity | Local homogeneity of the co-occurrence matrix | H | [70] |
Contrast | Local contrast of the co-occurrence matrix | Con | [70] |
Dissimilarity | Local dissimilarity of the co-occurrence matrix | D | [70] |
Entropy | Local entropy of the co-occurrence matrix | E | [70] |
Second Moment | Local angular second moment of the co-occurrence matrix | ScM | [70] |
Correlation | Local correlation of the co-occurrence matrix | Cor | [70] |
Classification Schemes and Layer Naming Convention | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Name | Description | Layer Naming Convention | Predictors | ||
SN C1 | Sigma Nought (SN) | HH_%date% | 21 | ||
classification scheme | HV_%date% | ||||
cR_%date% | |||||
SN C2 | Sigma Nought (SN) classification scheme using texture predictors | HH_%date%_M | HV_%date%_M | cR_%date%_M | 168 |
HH_%date%_V | HV_%date%_V | cR_%date%_V | |||
HH_%date%_H | HV_%date%_H | cR_%date%_H | |||
HH_%date%_Con | HV_%date%_Con | cR_%date%_Con | |||
HH_%date%_D | HV_%date%_D | cR_%date%_D | |||
HH_%date%_E | HV_%date%_E | cR_%date%_E | |||
HH_%date%_ScM | HV_%date%_ScM | cR_%date%_ScM | |||
HH_%date%_Cor | HV_%date%_Cor | cR_%date%_Cor | |||
KE C1 | Kennaugh Element (KE) | k0_%date% | 14 | ||
classification scheme | k1_%date% | ||||
KE C2 | Kennaugh Element (KE) classification scheme using texture predictors | k0_%date%_M | k1_%date%_M | 112 | |
k0_%date%_V | k1_%date%_V | ||||
k0_%date%_H | k1_%date%_H | ||||
k0_%date%_Con | k1_%date%_Con | ||||
k0_%date%_D | k1_%date%_D | ||||
k0_%date%_E | k1_%date%_E | ||||
k0_%date%_ScM | k1_%date%_ScM | ||||
k0_%date%_Cor | k1_%date%_Cor |
Land Cover Class | Min (cm) | Max (cm) | Mean (cm) | SD (cm) | Height Class |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fen | 17 | 36 | 27 | 7 | low |
High-center polygon | 6 | 20 | 9 | 4 | dwarf/low |
Low-center polygon | 8 | 29 | 17 | 5 | low |
Meadow | 12 | 23 | 17 | 6 | low |
Shrubs | 40 | 230 | n/a | n/a | medium/tall |
Sigma Nought | Kennaugh Element | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Scheme | SN C1 | SN C2 | KE C1 | KE C2 |
Model performance | ||||
Optimal model | RF2_SNC1 | RF2_SNC2 | RF1_KEC1 | RF2_C6 |
ntrain | 8235 | 8235 | 8260 | 8260 |
Predictors | 17 | 107 | 14 | 58 |
mtry | 3 | 9 | 2 | 13 |
ntree | 200 | 200 | 200 | 200 |
OOB error (%) | 41.6 | 2.7 | 7.6 | 0.7 |
OAtrain (%) | 58.6 | 97.3 | 92.2 | 99.2 |
Time (min) | 1.1 | 5.1 | 0.8 | 2.8 |
External validation | ||||
nval | 3523 | 3523 | 3534 | 3534 |
OAval | 57.7 | 97.6 | 92.4 | 99.3 |
OAtrain − OAval | 0.9 | −0.3 | −0.2 | −0.2 |
Sigma Nought | Kennaugh Element | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SN C1 | SN C2 | KE C1 | KE C2 | |||||
UA (%) | PA (%) | UA (%) | PA (%) | UA (%) | PA (%) | UA (%) | PA (%) | |
Bare soil | 79.8 | 37.4 | 99.5 | 96.8 | 95.7 | 82.6 | 99.0 | 100.0 |
Fen | 78.3 | 7.8 | 100 | 95.7 | 94.2 | 84.8 | 100.0 | 99.6 |
High center polygon | 51.2 | 87.3 | 95.6 | 99.5 | 91.2 | 95.9 | 99.6 | 99.3 |
Low center polygon | 43.8 | 31.2 | 97.6 | 96.1 | 86.7 | 91.8 | 98.9 | 99.7 |
Meadow | 0 | 0 | 100 | 88.6 | 100 | 77.9 | 100 | 99.0 |
Other | 75.9 | 12.4 | 100 | 98.9 | 94.9 | 92.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Sea | 84.8 | 83.3 | 100 | 98.9 | 98.9 | 99.4 | 100.0 | 99.4 |
Shrubs | 56.4 | 13.1 | 98.1 | 91.7 | 89.8 | 77.6 | 97.1 | 97.1 |
Fresh water | 87.7 | 85.3 | 99.2 | 99.4 | 99.1 | 97.1 | 99.8 | 99.6 |
OA (%) | 57.7 | 97.6 | 92.4 | 99.3 |
Ref. | BS | F | HCP | LCP | M | O | Se | Sh | FW | Total | UA (%) | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pred. | ||||||||||||
Bare soil | 157 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 5 | 164 | 95.7 | |
Fen | 1 | 195 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 207 | 94.2 | |
High-center polygon | 19 | 13 | 1242 | 55 | 12 | 5 | 0 | 13 | 3 | 1362 | 91.2 | |
Low-center polygon | 3 | 18 | 45 | 653 | 5 | 3 | 0 | 22 | 4 | 753 | 86.7 | |
Meadow | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 81 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 81 | 100.0 | |
Other | 8 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 167 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 176 | 94.9 | |
Sea | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 175 | 0 | 2 | 177 | 98.9 | |
Shrubs | 1 | 3 | 2 | 0 | 6 | 3 | 0 | 132 | 0 | 147 | 89.8 | |
Fresh water | 1 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 463 | 467 | 99.1 | |
total | 190 | 230 | 1295 | 711 | 104 | 181 | 176 | 170 | 477 | 3534 | OA (%) | |
PA (%) | 82.6 | 84.8 | 95.9 | 91.8 | 77.9 | 92.3 | 99.4 | 77.6 | 97.1 | 92.4 |
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A’Campo, W.; Bartsch, A.; Roth, A.; Wendleder, A.; Martin, V.S.; Durstewitz, L.; Lodi, R.; Wagner, J.; Hugelius, G. Arctic Tundra Land Cover Classification on the Beaufort Coast Using the Kennaugh Element Framework on Dual-Polarimetric TerraSAR-X Imagery. Remote Sens. 2021, 13, 4780. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234780
A’Campo W, Bartsch A, Roth A, Wendleder A, Martin VS, Durstewitz L, Lodi R, Wagner J, Hugelius G. Arctic Tundra Land Cover Classification on the Beaufort Coast Using the Kennaugh Element Framework on Dual-Polarimetric TerraSAR-X Imagery. Remote Sensing. 2021; 13(23):4780. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234780
Chicago/Turabian StyleA’Campo, Willeke, Annett Bartsch, Achim Roth, Anna Wendleder, Victoria S. Martin, Luca Durstewitz, Rachele Lodi, Julia Wagner, and Gustaf Hugelius. 2021. "Arctic Tundra Land Cover Classification on the Beaufort Coast Using the Kennaugh Element Framework on Dual-Polarimetric TerraSAR-X Imagery" Remote Sensing 13, no. 23: 4780. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13234780