Landslide Detection and Susceptibility Mapping by AIRSAR Data Using Support Vector Machine and Index of Entropy Models in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Description of the Study Area
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Landslide Inventory Map
3.2. Landslide Geodatabase
Landslide Conditioning Factors
3.3. Landslide Susceptibility Models
3.3.1. Support Vector Machine
3.3.2. Index of Entropy
3.4. Model Validation and Comparison
3.4.1. Statistical-Based Measures
3.4.2. ROC Curve Analysis
3.5. Statistical Tests (Friedman and Wilcoxon)
4. Results and Analysis
4.1. Landslide Detection Using AIRSAR and Optical Satellite Images
4.2. Model Analysis and Results
4.3. Model Validation and Comparison
4.4. Generating Landslide Susceptibility Mapping and Comparison
4.4.1. LSM by SVM Model
4.4.2. LSM by the IOE Model
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Date (dd/mm/yy) | Date Type | Band | Polarization | Bytes | Resolution | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIRSAR DEM | 9/11/2004 | DEM data: Integer 2 | C-band | DEM file | 25 | 10 m × 10 m |
9/11/2004 | DEM-related data: Integer 2 | C-band | VV | 25 | 10 m × 10 m | |
9/11/2004 | Polarimetric data | L-band | HH, HV, VH, VV | 15 | 10 m × 10 m | |
9/11/2004 | Polarimetric data | P-band | HH, HV, VH, VV | 15 | 10 m × 10 m | |
WorldView-1 | 8/03/2013 | Standard (2A)/ortho ready standard (OR2A) | 4-band multispectral (BLUE, GREEN, RED, NIR1) | Sun-synchronous | 11 bits | 0.46 m × 0.46 m |
8/03/2013 | Ortho ready stereo | 4-band bundle (PAN, BLUE, GREEN, RED, NIR1) | Sun-synchronous | 11 bits | 0.46 m × 0.46 m |
Spatial Database | Data Layers | Source of Data | GIS Spatial Database | Derived Map | Scale or Resolution |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Landslide inventory | Landslide inventory | AIRSAR data, optical satellite images, digital aerial photos and field work | Point and polygon | Seed cells | 10-m pixel size |
Topographic map | Slope | AIRSAR DEM | GRID | Slope gradient (in degrees) | 10-m pixel size |
Aspect | AIRSAR DEM | GRID | Slope orientation | 10-m pixel size | |
Soil | Soil | Soil map | Polygon | Soil | 1:25,000 |
Geology map | Lithology | Geological map obtained from the Mineral and Geosciences Department of Malaysia | ARC/INFO coverage | Lithology | 1:63,300 |
Fault | Geological map obtained from the Mineral and Geosciences Department of Malaysia | Line | Distance to fault | 1:63,300 | |
Road | Road | Topography map | Line | Distance to road | 1:25,000 |
Land use type | Land use | SPOT 5 satellite image | ARC/INFO GRID | Land use | 15 m |
Normalized difference Vegetation index (NDVI) | NDVI | SPOT 5 satellite image | ARC/INFO GRID | NDVI | 15 m |
Rainfall | Rainfall | 30 years of historical rainfall data | GRID | Rainfall map (mm) | 1:25,000 |
River | Rivers | AIRSAR DEM | ARC/INFO line coverage | Distance to river | 10-m pixel size |
No. | Landslide Causal Factors | Classes | |
---|---|---|---|
Topographic factors | 1 | Slope (o) | (1) 0–10; (2) 10–20; (3) 20–30; (4) 30–40; (5) >40 |
2 | Aspect | (1) Flat; (2) north; (3) northeast; (4) east; (5) southeast; (6) south; (7) southwest; (8) west; (9) northwest | |
Hydrological factors | 3 | Rainfall (mm) | (1) 2612–2661; (2) 2662–2678; (3) 2679–2694; (4) 2695–2708; (5) 2709–2719; (6) 2720–2731; (7) 2732–2743; (8) 2744–2754; (9) 2755–2764; (10) 2765–2781 |
4 | Distance to rivers (m) | (1) 0–50; (2) 50–100; (3) 100–150; (4) 150–200; (5) 200–300; (6) 300–500; (7) >500 | |
Lithological factors | 5 | Lithology | (1) Metamorphic rock; (2) igneous rock |
6 | Distance to faults (m) | (1) 0–50; (2) 50–100; (3) 100–150; (4) 150–200; (5) 200–500; (6) >500 | |
7 | Soil | (1) Serong series; (2) alluvium-colluvium | |
Land cover factors | 8 | Land use | (1) Grass; (2) primary forest; (3) rubber; (4) cutting; (5) secondary forest; (6) settlements; (7) agriculture area; (8) water body |
9 | NDVI | (1) [(−0.774)–(−0.613)]; (2) [(−0.618)–(−459)]; (3) [(−0.457)–(0.303)]; (4) [(−0.309)–(−0.139)]; (5) [(−0.144)–(0.012)]; (6) [0.015–0.174]; (7) [0.172–0.328]; (8) [0.322–0.491]; (9) [0.491–0.648]; (10) [0.641–0.809] | |
Man-made factors | 10 | Distance to roads (m) | (1) 0–50; (2) 50–100; (3) 100–200; (4) 200–500; (5) >500 |
Training | Validation | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Train | SVM | IOE | SVM | IOE |
True positive (TP) | 70 | 65 | 16 | 14 |
True negative (TN) | 65 | 61 | 14 | 13 |
False positive (FP) | 9 | 16 | 4 | 5 |
False negative (FN) | 4 | 9 | 2 | 4 |
Sensitivity (%) | 94.6 | 87.8 | 88.9 | 77.8 |
Specificity (%) | 87.8 | 79.2 | 77.8 | 72.2 |
Accuracy (%) | 91.2 | 83.4 | 83.3 | 75.0 |
Kappa | 0.883 | 0.813 | 0.663 | 0.613 |
AUROC | 0.896 | 0.826 | 0.845 | 0.826 |
Factor | Class | Percentage of Domain | Percentage of Landslide | Pij | (Pij) | Hj | Hjmax | Ij | Wj |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Slope (°) | 0–10 | 17.63 | 9.07 | 0.51 | 0.107 | 1.085 | 1.629 | 0.962 | 0.910 |
10–20 | 19.45 | 14.51 | 0.75 | 0.158 | |||||
20–30 | 21.71 | 26.12 | 1.20 | 0.253 | |||||
30–40 | 25.31 | 37.84 | 1.49 | 0.315 | |||||
>40 | 15.90 | 12.46 | 0.78 | 0.164 | |||||
Aspect | Flat | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 1.726 | 1.871 | 0.948 | 0.840 |
North | 6.09 | 8.14 | 1.34 | 0.167 | |||||
Northeast | 16.41 | 14.39 | 0.88 | 0.110 | |||||
East | 19.01 | 21.54 | 1.13 | 0.141 | |||||
Southeast | 18.93 | 17.28 | 0.91 | 0.114 | |||||
South | 10.21 | 9.46 | 0.93 | 0.116 | |||||
Southwest | 7.58 | 3.52 | 0.46 | 0.057 | |||||
West | 10.15 | 9.31 | 0.92 | 0.115 | |||||
Northwest | 11.62 | 16.36 | 1.41 | 0.176 | |||||
Soil | Serong series | 38.87 | 38.05 | 0.98 | 0.492 | 1.471 | 1.938 | 1.178 | 1.172 |
Alluvium-colluvium | 61.13. | 61.95 | 1.02 | 0.507 | |||||
Lithology | Metamorphic rock | 58.63 | 59.72 | 1.11 | 0.512 | 1.718 | 1.995 | 1.133 | 1.127 |
Igneous rock | 41.37 | 40.28 | 0.97 | 0.487 | |||||
NDVI | −0.774–−0.613 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.000 | 0.701 | 0.955 | 0.220 | 0.184 |
−0.618–−0.459 | 6.41 | 5.23 | 0.81 | 0.096 | |||||
−0.457–−0.303 | 8.72 | 7.93 | 0.91 | 0.108 | |||||
−0.309–−0.139 | 12.16 | 10.33 | 0.85 | 0.101 | |||||
−0.144–0.012 | 26.28 | 29.95 | 1.14 | 0.136 | |||||
0.015–0.174 | 3.04 | 2.01 | 0.66 | 0.078 | |||||
0.172–0.328 | 4.96 | 5.11 | 1.03 | 0.123 | |||||
0.332–0.491 | 7.21 | 6.76 | 0.94 | 0.112 | |||||
0.491–0.648 | 11.70 | 10.55 | 0.90 | 0.107 | |||||
0.641–0.809 | 19.52 | 22.13 | 1.13 | 0.135 | |||||
Land use | Grass | 3.62 | 2.73 | 0.75 | 0.099 | 1.735 | 1.899 | 0.985 | 0.932 |
Primary forest | 8.71 | 12.44 | 0.74 | 0.097 | |||||
Rubber | 8.11 | 7.45 | 0.92 | 0.121 | |||||
Cutting | 21.79 | 20.47 | 0.94 | 0.125 | |||||
Secondary forest | 19.62 | 18.43 | 0.93 | 0.122 | |||||
Settlements | 18.14 | 17.76 | 0.98 | 0.129 | |||||
Agriculture area | 4.46 | 6.10 | 1.37 | 0.180 | |||||
Water body | 15.55 | 14.62 | 0.94 | 0.124 | |||||
Rainfall (mm/year) | 2612–2661 | 16.57 | 15.87 | 0.96 | 0.079 | 1.766 | 2.239 | 1.450 | 1.753 |
2662–1681 | 6.20 | 6.18 | 0.99 | 0.081 | |||||
2679–2694 | 6.77 | 6.98 | 1.03 | 0.085 | |||||
2695–2708 | 18.12 | 19.63 | 1.09 | 0.090 | |||||
2709–2719 | 8.66 | 7.17 | 0.83 | 0.068 | |||||
2720–2731 | 10.07 | 8.23 | 0.82 | 0.067 | |||||
2732–2743 | 11.11 | 9.55 | 0.86 | 0.071 | |||||
2744–2754 | 13.95 | 12.41 | 0.89 | 0.073 | |||||
2755–2764 | 7.09 | 9.10 | 1.28 | 0.105 | |||||
2765–2781 | 2.46 | 4.88 | 3.34 | 0.276 | |||||
Distance to faults (m) | 0–50 | 11.75 | 19.23 | 1.07 | 0.257 | 1.378 | 1.548 | 0.657 | 0.692 |
50–100 | 21.19 | 22.64 | 1.05 | 0.169 | |||||
100–150 | 9.04 | 9.41 | 1.04 | 0.164 | |||||
150–200 | 10.98 | 11.79 | 1.07 | 0.163 | |||||
200–500 | 29.71 | 25.81 | 0.87 | 0.137 | |||||
>500 | 17.33 | 11.12 | 0.64 | 0.101 | |||||
Distance to rivers (m) | 0–50 | 11.40 | 12.91 | 1.23 | 0.160 | 2.558 | 2.633 | 1.661 | 1.670 |
50–100 | 19.41 | 21.01 | 1.08 | 0.153 | |||||
100–150 | 17.99 | 18.65 | 1.03 | 0.146 | |||||
150–200 | 3.61 | 3.72 | 1.03 | 0.145 | |||||
200–300 | 9.33 | 8.97 | 0.96 | 0.136 | |||||
300–500 | 29.77 | 27.09 | 0.91 | 0.129 | |||||
>500 | 8.49 | 7.65 | 0.90 | 0.127 | |||||
Distance to roads (m) | 0–50 | 22.01 | 37.64 | 1.17 | 0.302 | 1.611 | 1.759 | 0.843 | 0.793 |
50–100 | 19.26 | 18.82 | 0.98 | 0.173 | |||||
100–150 | 15.52 | 11.76 | 0.76 | 0.135 | |||||
150–200 | 13.84 | 10.61 | 0.76 | 0.134 | |||||
200–500 | 17.98 | 12.94 | 0.72 | 0.127 | |||||
>500 | 11.39 | 8.23 | 0.72 | 0.123 |
Landslide Models | Mean Ranks | χ2 | Significance |
---|---|---|---|
SVM | 2.01 | 35.286 | 0.000 |
IOE | 1.65 |
Pairwise Comparison | Positive | Negative | Z (Value) | p (Value) | Significance |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
SVM vs. IOE | 45 | 12 | −10.235 | 0.000 | Yes |
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Tien Bui, D.; Shahabi, H.; Shirzadi, A.; Chapi, K.; Alizadeh, M.; Chen, W.; Mohammadi, A.; Ahmad, B.B.; Panahi, M.; Hong, H.; et al. Landslide Detection and Susceptibility Mapping by AIRSAR Data Using Support Vector Machine and Index of Entropy Models in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Remote Sens. 2018, 10, 1527. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101527
Tien Bui D, Shahabi H, Shirzadi A, Chapi K, Alizadeh M, Chen W, Mohammadi A, Ahmad BB, Panahi M, Hong H, et al. Landslide Detection and Susceptibility Mapping by AIRSAR Data Using Support Vector Machine and Index of Entropy Models in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia. Remote Sensing. 2018; 10(10):1527. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101527
Chicago/Turabian StyleTien Bui, Dieu, Himan Shahabi, Ataollah Shirzadi, Kamran Chapi, Mohsen Alizadeh, Wei Chen, Ayub Mohammadi, Baharin Bin Ahmad, Mahdi Panahi, Haoyuan Hong, and et al. 2018. "Landslide Detection and Susceptibility Mapping by AIRSAR Data Using Support Vector Machine and Index of Entropy Models in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia" Remote Sensing 10, no. 10: 1527. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10101527