African Indigenous Female Entrepreneurs (IFÉs): A Closed-Looped Social Circular Economy Waste Management Model

Abstract

Uncontrolled waste disposal sites remain prevalent in low- and lower-middle-income countries, with organic waste constituting between 50 and 80% of the total openly dumped waste volumes. Waste-to-wealth initiatives focused on biowaste enterprises through female entrepreneurs can advance the eradication of open dumps while creating economic opportunities. This study, therefore, proposes an organizational model that leverages Indigenous female institutions, circular economy concepts, and a closed-loop biowaste management technique that mitigates the open-dump challenge. The Indigenous female entrepreneur (IFÉ) business model leverages circular economy and social circular economy models in the application of a low-tech insect-based biowaste conversion that valorizes municipal solid waste into products that can be reintegrated into the environment and community. The model will be utilized in a Tanzanian pilot study using co-production strategies to derive a sustainable biowaste enterprise. Co-production sees users as authorities in their own circumstances and treats them as primus inter pares with experts, thus facilitating the integration of the relational element of Indigenous societies and motivating cultural appreciation. Conversely, co-production will necessitate revisions to the model in every location where it is applied. The model was successfully test-run in a high-income country, but future research, including the pilot study, will validate the model and highlight innovations.

1. Introduction

Unregulated waste disposal sites (open dumps) remain commonplace in low-income and lower-middle-income countries [1]. The consequent adverse impacts on human health, economic development, and the environment disproportionately affect women [2]. This is due to their caregiving responsibilities to sick family members and their household waste disposal responsibilities [3]. The failure to recognize gender disparities in all aspects of human interaction is termed gender blindness. However, it can be addressed by expanding the domains in which gender considerations are made [4], including the waste discourse [5]. Amongst other factors such as inappropriate technology [6], top-down user-rejected waste management systems [7], and limited government budgets [8], the permanence of waste management systems (WMS) is compromised because the discipline is traditionally embedded in engineering, with less emphasis on the socio-economic and management factors [9]. Technology as the solution to unmanaged waste is a “frequent misconception,” and “countries… are more likely to succeed when they select locally appropriate solutions” [10]. Local waste management solutions such as the entrepreneurial management of waste banks by female administrators in Indonesia [11] and the development and management of an open-market composting site by an Indigenous female institution in Ghana [5] highlight the need for unique waste management strategies built around existing female networks. These examples employed decentralized solid waste treatment methods that leveraged the self-organizational skills of women and Indigenous female-led institutions.

Socio-economic benefits are critical to WMS in low-income settings [12]. Thus, an attractive prospect is generating revenue via the low-cost black soldier fly (BSF) waste treatment method. BSF treatment is an emerging technology that valorizes organic waste into biofertilizers while breeding larvae for animal or human feed. BSF byproducts are commercially viable, with increased demand anticipated after the European Union’s recent authorization of insect protein for poultry and swine feed [13]. BSF waste treatment also reduces land use, water and energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The commercial rearing of BSF larvae on food waste is successfully practiced in many countries, including Canada [14], Kenya [15], and Indonesia [16]. However, the demonstrated use of this technology by communities directly impacted by open dumps is markedly absent.

Waste has been described as “a human-made common pool resource” [17] that occurs daily [18], “flows unceasingly” [19], follows “the path of least resistance and ends up in marginalized communities” [20]. Solutions need to include the involvement of residents [17] and focus on “practices that are less costly, simpler, and more efficient and… self-sustainable, reducing the financial burden on municipalities” [5]. Therefore, this research seeks to take advantage of the environmental benefits of BSF to provide socio-economic gains and a waste management system that leverages Indigenous African women’s capabilities. It seeks a solution that moves beyond the technical to incorporate social, business, and cultural considerations in designing a solid waste management system [9]. By extending the boundaries of solid waste management to include other atypical considerations, the proposed study could result in an enduring solution to open dumps and contributes to the limited literature on present-day African Indigenous female institutions. This paper begins with a review of scholarly research exploring the term Indigenous and Indigenous female groups, the black soldier fly technique, the circular economy and social circular economy. It then moves to the methods and design stages of the study, followed by future research considerations and the conclusion.

2. Literature Review

2.1. Indigenity, Indigenous Women, and Indigenous Female Entrepreneurs (IFÉs)

2.1.1. Defining Indigenous

Governmental rationing of people and property was the original intention for the designation of “Indigenous” status in the nineteenth century. The relevancy is increasing as nations narrow and expand their definitions “in response to demographic, legal, and political pressures” [21]. There is no single accepted definition, and discussions regarding Indigenous people, culture, rights, practices, and philosophies remain contentious [22]. However, in terms of a definition, some criteria are consistent, such as self-identification, self-regulation with its own traditions, descent from pre-colonization inhabitants, and socio-economic contrast from the surrounding society [23]. A United Nations recognized and frequently cited definition of Indigenous people was provided in the Martinez Cobo study on the Problem of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations [24].

“Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion and pre-colonial societies that developed on their territories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sectors of society and are determined to preserve, develop and transmit to future generations their ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance with their own cultural patterns, social institutions, and legal system”.

[24]

Amongst other characteristics, the definition incorporates the earlier stated criteria of self-identification, self-regulation, descent from pre-colonization inhabitants, and socio-economic contrast [23] and is thus broadly accepted.

Although not exclusive, policy goals have led to the characterization of three definition groups: descent—demonstrated relationship between current claimants and historically uncontestable Indigenous groups; cultural—participation in Indigenous community life, language, and economy; and self-definition—government delegated self-governance to Indigenous communities [21]. The frameworks, and thus the definitions, of Indigenous status are most developed in Australia, New Zealand, Scandinavia (Norway, Sweden, and Finland), Canada, and the USA [21]. The status and definition, however, remain contested in many parts of the world. Although disputed by some governments, Indigenous communities and institutions remain present in Latin America, Africa, and Russia [21]. Russian legislation, for example, recognizes self-identification and descent but constrains the definition to a pre-determined size, i.e., 50,000 people [23]. China has stated, “In China, there are no indigenous people and therefore no indigenous issues” [21]. Furthermore, most African and Asian countries oppose the earlier stated definition and criteria or outrightly reject the Indigenous status.

“In much of Asia and Africa, state governments reject the term’s applicability to their own inhabitants: Indigeneity, they argue, is a function of European settler-colonialism… Such peoples are now non-dominant minorities with historical claims. Elsewhere, they aver, indigeneity would apply to everyone and is therefore irrelevant”.

[21]

In this study, an Indigenous nation is considered one “whose ancestors formed the state before colonization. Most of the citizens are descendants and the original owners of the countries’ resources” [25].

2.1.2. Indigenous Institutions

Researchers, economists, and policymakers have historically depended on Western-based models to define institutions and characterize their success [26]. However, legitimization in the local cultural setting is vital for success, and it changes depending on location [27]. For example, Chamlee-Wright cites the socio-economic success of the North American Apache as being due to its Indigenous governance structure, which is similar to the structure imposed on it by the 1930s Indian Reservations Act (IRA). On the other hand, the same act was a contributor to the degeneration of the Sioux due to its Indigenous governance structure, which is decentralized [27]. “Diversity and pluralism are a characteristic of non-Western societies” [28], and as such Indigenous institutions and knowledge systems are a stark contrast to modern establishments [29].

Despite the cited idiosyncrasy, indigenous communities and some indigenous demography share similar experiences. For example, similarities in the experience of Indigenous female groups can be found worldwide, with the most cited being the stripping of power from Indigenous women and female groups during colonialism and post-independence. In Canada, Indigenous Nuu-chah-nulth (NCN) women traditionally held coequal roles with men, but this changed with European arrival [30]. In Guatemala, prior to colonization, leadership was traditionally split between men and women; however, “After independence, one of the first measures taken by the new administration was… breaking up the joint leadership role played by men and women” [31]. In Africa, female institutions wielded tremendous power because of the underlying African matriarchal influence: “Everywhere in Africa that one scrapes the surface, one finds ethno-historical data on the authority once shared by women” [32]. However, significant power was stripped from them over the past 5000 years, with the most detrimental occurring in the last 150 years due to colonization [33]. Matriarchal civilizations in West Africa; Nigeria (Zazzau, Nupe, and Edo), Republic of Benin (Dahomey), Sierra Leone (Mende), and Ghana (Ashanti); East Africa, Ethiopia (Sheba); Central Africa, Sudan (Kandake), and Angola (Nzinga) existed peacefully alongside patrilineal civilizations with the dignity of women remaining uncompromised [32,33,34]. Indigenous African women held powerful positions such as queens-rulers, queen mothers, paramount chiefs, Iyalodes, Sagi, and Sonya [34]. Their influence and authority were drastically diminished through slavery, colonization, imperialism, neo-imperialism, and other forms of racial and gender oppression [35]. Nevertheless, remnants of the once powerful, esteemed, enterprising Indigenous women groups remain [32].

Following the earlier stated Indigenous definition, Indigenous African female institutions in this study are considered female institutions that existed prior to colonization. Therefore, Indigenous female entrepreneurs (IFÉs) are entrepreneurs that are members of Indigenous African female institutions. The acronym IFÉ plays on a Yoruba (a Nigerian language) word. It describes a business model grounded in culture while providing economic and environmental benefits. IFÉ echoes cooperation, community, and unity.

Indigenous female entrepreneurial activities flourished where colonial interest was absent. So we see them today “overrepresented” in small-scale or micro-enterprises in retail trading (textiles, food supply), catering, service industry, agro-processing, agriculture, textile and fabrics (weaving kente, aso-oke), handcraft making (jewelry, beads, pottery), and manufacturing (soap, cosmetics, shampoo) [25]. They are present as community groups, self-help associations, religious organizations, tribal groups, and women’s political parties [36]. Each is self-sustaining because they are self-funded, typically through the Indigenous female trading associations. Indigenous female institutions require minimal external support and enjoy a unique privilege afforded by their deeply entrenched roots, which span millennia [6,7,8,9]. Female Indigenous organizations are efficient, self-structured, and locally respected: “Indigenous institutions anchored in local culture and values can count on the sound pillars of legitimacy, accountability, and self-enforcement. They have a strong hold on people’s commitment, dedication, and sense of identity” [37]. Figure 1 illustrates aspects of the African Indigenous female institution’s heritage relevant to this research. These features make them an untapped resource for the management of organic waste. The social cohesion capacities traditionally held by women within their families and communities are well documented [3,36,38,39]. This study will leverage these connections because Indigenous female-specific relationships have produced culturally unique capital acquisition and mutual assistance results [27]. “If we are to find useful solutions to under-development… economic analysis will have to turn to the cultural realm. The mainstream of economic inquiry unfortunately offers little opportunity to explore the connections between cultural processes and economic development” [27]. Results of this research will provide insights into the connection between culture and economic improvement, thus providing practical answers.

Involving Indigenous African female-led institutions in solid waste management systems and business design can contribute to rectifying the challenge of having a resource with capabilities that are “under-resourced, under-developed, underutilized and unaccounted for” [4].

Additionally, addressing the waste management challenge through Indigenous women provides an opportunity to reinstate the autonomy they enjoyed before colonization. It also leverages Indigenous concepts of waste and waste management practices which have captured the interest of researchers [40,41,42]. Waste prevention and other closed-loop global waste management strategies support the concern that “the cultural beliefs and practices on waste should not be ignored” [43] because Indigenous cultures frown at wastage [40]. Nigerian cultures consider it taboo to waste anything [41]; these beliefs agree with scientific concepts that emphasize prevention as a solid waste management technique. Furthermore, feasibility and pilot studies in West Africa have proven that biowaste can be recycled in decentralized systems run by self-organizing community groups using simple technology [5,12]. The success is attributable to the minimal maintenance required by low-tech biowaste techniques, autonomy afforded the community, and profitability prospects.

These Indigenous organizations’ self-organizational skills and institutional credibility were apparent in the waste management pilot study of a Ghanaian market by Asomani-Boateng. The Indigenous female institution in the study is the Market and Commodity Queens, and they self-organized to manage an independently run composting program [5]. Indigenous open-air markets typically have an overall or supreme leader; in this instance, it is the “market queen.” The entire market is organized around her, the commodity queens, and the market associations. Each commodity queen answers to representatives in a constituency or market association made up of traders. The commodity queens and market queen manage the marketplace. The author proposed a solution to their waste challenge, detailing the resources required, and then the market queens self-organized to execute the project [5]. In the Asomani-Boateng study, they informed and urged their members to participate in the study through waste separation. They organized the collection points, times, and compost setup, including allocating a compost site and instructing the workers on composting requirements. However, the study was constrained due to spatial limitations typically experienced in urban locations. The organizational structure of the Indigenous institution, illustrated in Figure 2, was vital for sustaining this level of cooperation. As a Ghanaian market queen succinctly put it, “without doing on the grassroots, you can’t work at the top. Nobody can jump from outside” [45]. Without Indigenous female-led institutions as champions, sustained change cannot be achieved in African societies [5,45]. Formal institutions, government-run entities, were imposed on Africans through colonization, and these institutions have remained disconnected from the communities they are intended to serve [44]. This has led to citizen reluctance to step in to assist government municipal solid waste management shortcomings.

Integrating socio-economic and management considerations in the waste management decision-making process is critical in developing countries [9,46]. The importance was confirmed in the above-cited pilot study. Spatial constraints and an adaptable technology were the limitations in this case. Therefore, this proposed study will address the same problem (biowaste), using the same type of management team (Indigenous female entrepreneurs) but with a technology that requires a fraction of the spatial requirement and a business model that advocates cultural sensitivities.

2.2. The Black Soldier Fly (BSF) Organic Waste Treatment Method

The BSF waste treatment method is an organic waste management technology that valorizes organic waste into biofertilizers while producing larvae for animal or human feed. Black soldier fly (BSF) biowaste treatment systems are simple to construct, affordable, and adaptable to local requirements. Therefore, an engineered small- to medium-sized decentralized black soldier fly treatment facility is well suited to a low-income location. The black soldier fly’s appetite for decomposing organic waste was discovered in the early 20th century, and since then, the treatment method has gained recognition as a viable and profitable waste management technology [9,47].

BSF is a non-pest fly originally native to the Americas. However, globalization and the transport of goods have facilitated its migration to tropical and sub-tropical regions [9]. Adult flies do not have mouthparts or stingers, survive on reserves garnered as larvae, and thus do not transmit disease-causing pathogens [1]. BSF larvae also immobilize disease-transmitting bacteria such as Salmonella [16,47], reduce the half-life of pharmaceutical substances, and decrease the nitrogen and phosphorous content of waste [1]. The system provides a closed nutrient loop that can also mitigate the nuisance of uncontrolled waste disposal sites.

The technology has been applied to various types of organic waste such as animal manure, distillers’ grains, fecal sludge, food and market waste, and fish waste. In the right conditions and with the proper moisture level, BSF larvae are prolific feeders with a mass reduction of 50–80% [48]. Application to source-segregated waste translates to a potential waste reduction of 25–64% of total municipal solid waste volumes. The benefit of eliminating the hazards associated with decomposing waste dumps is only surpassed by BSF larvae’s nutritional value. When harvested at the last larval phase, prepupal BSF consists of 42% crude protein and 29% fat [17,18,49] and is rich in vitamins, micronutrients, and fatty acids [1]. This makes rearing BSF larvae for animal consumption an attractive enterprise. Figure 3 showcases the phases of BSF rearing and BSF waste conversion.

BSF waste management technology will be profitable and long-lasting only if the system satisfies the socio-economic requirements unique to a location and its stakeholders. Therefore, the business model adopted by BSF entrepreneurs requires careful consideration and will be discussed in the next section.

2.3. Closed-Loop Product Life Cycle Models

2.3.1. The Circular Economy

There is consensus amongst scholars that the circular economy (CE) is relevant to all economies, including low- and middle-income countries [50,51,52]. The concept is de facto in low-income settings, typically driven by culture, low employment rates, and poverty. However, significant gaps exist in whether CE will positively impact these economies [50].

“Circular economy strategies could help lower-income countries ‘leapfrog’ to a more sustainable development pathway… As lower-income countries’ economies are in many ways still more ‘circular’ in terms of resource management and production and consumption practices than their developed economy counterparts, the question is how to turn this into a development opportunity”.

[51]

The Ellen MacArthur Foundation introduced the circular economy in 2013 as “an industrial economy that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design” [53]. The CE was introduced as a substitute for the neoclassical economy because it acknowledged the natural environment and forged a symbiotic connection between the environment and the economic system [54]. Models and definitions of CE vary from simplistic to complex [55]. Waste is a valuable resource in the circular economy [56], with several papers citing CE as a solution to waste mismanagement in developing countries [52]. The primary motivation for CE in high-income countries includes resource management and environmental protection, but for low- and middle-income countries, “the drivers may include ‘extracting value’ from waste as secondary resources that can be used to create livelihoods, generate jobs, and reduce poverty” [50]. Despite the contrasting purposes, the restoration and regeneration of resources associated with the circular economy mitigate the accumulation of waste. Therefore, the model is valuable in developing a long-lasting organic waste management system.

CE defines environmentally friendly economic systems based on the cradle-to-cradle life cycle of products, components, and materials. However, the concept “typically refers to an industrial economy that is regenerative and restorative by design” [57]. Furthermore, in considering the social and economic impacts of CE, researchers have referred to job opportunities, an efficient tax system, and consumer behaviour change as indicators [54], measures that are less critical in decentralized Indigenous communities. The circular economy focuses on influencing economic activities to benefit the environment but with limited integration of social considerations [20,21]. “CE prioritizes the economic system, where the main beneficiaries are the economy and environment, while societal benefits arise from environmental improvements, manual labour, or fairer taxation” [54]. These features make current versions of CE less applicable in low- and lower-middle-income countries which have unindustrialized economies and weak tax recovery systems. For example, the relevance of advanced technology in the CE model in the textile industry favoured 3D printing (additive manufacturing), which would negatively affect the large population of female garment workers in South Asia [51]. This is an unequivocal instance of the current mismatch of the CE model for low-income countries. Therefore, the CE model will require some modification to become more relevant in these societies. The focus on shaping economic activities to benefit the environment with limited integration of social considerations [56,58] is in contrast with the ideologies of Indigenous societies, which are relational. The key social indicator of CE is job creation, while critical low-income indicators such as poverty, food security, participation, and social inclusion are currently not in use [58].

To resolve current CE incompatibilities, the African Alliance on the Circular Economy was launched, in 2017, at the 23rd Conference of Parties (COP 23) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [59]. The government-led coalition includes Rwanda, Nigeria, and South Africa and global organizations such as the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) [50]. Food systems is one of the industries supported by the coalition under its “five big bets for Africa’s path to circularity” initiative [60]. The other sectors include packaging, electronics, fashion and textiles, and the built environment. The CE model adopted for food systems is a closed-loop model that follows a distribution–consumption–post-consumption path, with post-consumption requiring the conversion of waste into soil enhancers or energy [60]. The basis of the alliances’ approach is the “potential to generate wealth from waste, especially among poor, marginalized communities” [50]. This intent aligns with the purpose of our research. However, the CE principles and model need to be “domesticated” to gain a clearer understanding of its impact.

Circular economic business models (CEBM) have been characterized into five groups [57], and the characterizations applicable to this research are shown in

Table 1. Categories of Circular Economy Business Models. (Source: Authors. Based on [57]).

CEBM	Feature	Integrated into Study (Y/N)
Dematerialization	Digitalization, on-demand production, and reusable products	N
Circular inputs	Sourcing sustainably sourced raw materials and renewable energies to manufacture fully biodegradable and recyclable products	Y (zero-energy-input goal)
Product-life extension	Durable design, modular design, repair and maintenance, and repurposing	N 1
Resource recovery	Composting and recycling	Y
Product service system	Product as a service	N

¹ The final design is dependent on co-production outcomes and is therefore subject to change.

.

As it currently stands, an alternative to the CE is the social circular economy, which integrates social considerations in the CE.

2.3.2. The Social Circular Economy

The social circular economy (SCE) satisfies the circular economy’s social consideration requirement by integrating the circular economy’s environmental principles with the societal focus of social enterprises [57]. The model fully considers all three pillars of sustainability, i.e., environment, society, and economy: “social circular economy is an operating model to ensure that the economy does not harm society or environment and in fact benefits both society and environment the more of it that takes place” [57]. The differences between linear economy, CE, social enterprise, and SCE are demonstrated in Figure 4. The framework was successfully tested on 31 small- and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Latin America and South Asia, i.e., countries with low labour costs that allowed for “a more human centered recovery” approach [57].

Social enterprises aim to “use business principles to achieve societal good and make a positive change in the world,” but they do not automatically internalize negative environmental impacts [57]. SCE, therefore, counteracts the potential weakness of the CE and social enterprise models. SCE combats the underutilization of social resources such as IFÉs by aligning with grassroots community action. It also incorporates attributes suitable for low-income countries, such as low-capital operations, simple technology, and labour-dependent activities.

It is essential to point out that, like any other concept, there are deterrents to social circular economy. They include additional costs of doing business, the critical need for community champions, and a lack of national or global relevance due to the small-scale nature of social circular enterprises [57]. These factors were considered in the development of the IFÉ model. For locations suited to decentralized infrastructure, as is the case in many low-income countries, the small-scale nature of SCE fits well. Hence, based on findings from this research, a modified SCE will be used to define a low-tech, labour-driven circular economy appropriate for low-income countries.

3. Materials and Methods

A three-staged methodological approach was proposed for this research (see Figure 5). Pilot studies are recommended to design a BSF system [1]. Consequently, a pilot study was planned to use collaborative approaches unique to the Tanzanian location and its stakeholders to answer the following questions:

• How can sustained biowaste management be achieved through an Indigenous female-led group’s independent management of a black soldier fly (BSF) biowaste treatment program?
• Which conditions, including affordable technology, social inclusion, market viability, and an enabling environment, will foster a self-sustaining venture?

The answers will be strongly influenced by the research location and the participating female organization, hence the need for qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis. The mixed-method data collection and analysis research approach (NVIVO, life cycle assessment modeling) will enable the:

• Triangulation to enhance the validity of findings;
• Illustration of quantitative data findings through qualitative data;
• Inclusion of diverse perspectives needed to understand the dynamics and complex nature of waste management and gender roles in Africa;
• Explanation of unexpected and unusual findings common in pilot studies.

The project is split into pre-design, co-design, and post-design stages to incorporate co-production methods. These stages align with the phases of successful innovations in public services: imitation, adaptation, and innovation [24].

3.1. Pre-Design (Imitation)

A BSF pilot study ran between August and September 2021 at Simon Farm in High River, Alberta, a University of Calgary faculty-run regenerative agriculture research facility [61]. The facility was used for breeding BSF larvae to test the BSF-frass-grown crops against commercial compost-grown crops. The zero-energy-input goal of the study created an uninhabitable environment for the BSF despite their location in a greenhouse during the summer months. Steep temperature swings and cold evenings curtailed the pupation of the BSF pupae. A follow-up pilot study was successfully conducted in a Calgary residence from February to April 2022, with 750 black soldier fly larvae (BSFL) completing the BSF life cycle, bioconverting household biowaste, and reproducing 1327 neonates (young BSF), which were donated to a University of Calgary sustainability study. The second pilot study used energy for heating and lighting purposes, deviating from the zero-energy-input strategy. Following the pilot studies’ success, a conceptual diagram (Figure 6), model (Figure 7), and site layout were designed and developed for testing in an Indigenous community.

To ensure circularity while maintaining the distinct character of Indigenous female institutions, operations in this study are built around the SCE model (Figure 6). The IFÉ model builds on the CE and mirrors the underlying SCE ideology but maintains the distinct features of IFÉs. CE and social enterprise features that are included in SCE are segmented into the operational steps that begin with waste collection and end with product (larvae for animal feed and soil conditioner) consumption.

Co-production strategies that appreciate African Indigenous knowledge [62] will be used to achieve social inclusion and citizen engagement [63]. The social circular economy model will evaluate circularity, financial viability, social innovation, and the influence of community action [57]. At the same time, a life cycle assessment (LCA) will be used to investigate the environmental impact of BSF [64]. This design approach will further the sustainability of the proposed waste treatment enterprise.

People make up IFÉs, so personas were developed to better understand their motivations, interests, and personalities. The personas were developed based on crucial roles such as a BSF champion (Figure 8a)—a position recommended by the social circular economy business model [22]. Another persona is the agriculturalist, a co-collaborator and partner of the BSF initiative (Figure 8b). The personas provide a clearer perspective on the potential candidates that might be interested in the project roles. They will be revised upon the completion of the field surveys and interviews.

3.2. Co-Design (Adaptation)

On location, the research phase will be conducted in two phases. The sequential exploratory design format will explore the phenomenon of community-based waste management through female-led organizations.

3.2.1. Phase One

This is the exploratory phase in which qualitative data will be collected and analyzed.

• Discussions with participants and waste management experts in the community will be held to understand better the mechanisms operating in the scenario and the characteristics of the participants.
• Researcher observations will be made on the volume of waste piles, waste production (sampling and analysis), environmental conditions, landscape characteristics, and other waste-related parameters.
• The research concept will be shared with representatives of the Indigenous institution for feedback.

3.2.2. Phase Two

A small-scale interview-based questionnaire will be designed and conducted using phase one findings. The survey will focus on determining participants’ impression of the waste challenge and their willingness to separate waste and participate in the pilot study and training sessions. Phase two survey results and feedback from the Indigenous representatives will modify the BSF waste treatment process to fit the location requirements. The goal of this pilot study phase includes:

• Redesigning and redeveloping the strategy based on real-time response (participants, neighbours, and customer feedback);
• Determining the mechanisms required for success. Success will be benchmarked against the current volume of diverted organic waste, BSF literature, and the 2012 pilot study of composting by a female-led organization [5]. Three and a half tonnes of food waste were composted in the study, which is 2% of the daily generated food waste at the study site.

3.3. Post-Design (Innovation)

The findings in phase two will be finalized in phase three after five cycles of BSF batch waste treatment. Innovation will be determined by comparing the pre-design model to the post-design features, with innovation defined as the difference. The multiple cycles will enable a well-defined BSF biowaste treatment system, byproduct market, and business models that fit the location and stakeholder requirements. Success will be benchmarked against literature and previous practices. Success criteria will include the independent management of the BSF facility by IFÉs, implementation and running of the process for two (2) years, and profitability of IFÉ by the second year. In addition, life cycle assessment (LCA), business model redesign, and an economic analysis will be used to identify social innovation, citizen engagement, and waste management benefits and impacts and confirm the self-organization skills of the Indigenous female entrepreneurs (IFÉs). The socio-economic and cultural indicators to be measured are provided in

Table 2. Research Socio-economic and Cultural Indicators.

Indicator	Source	Data From	Application in Study
Tons of biowaste/day (Resource recovery)	CE	BSF conversion rate	Open-dump mitigation
Number of jobs (Job creation)	CE	BSF facility	Employment
Work hours/day (Labour required)	SCE	BSF facility	Job security
Number of community champions (Community champions)	SCE	Surveys and interviews	Persona modification
Number of pre-design changes (Innovation)	[56]	BSF treatment and byproduct sales	Co-production assessment
Total earning or losses (Profitability)	[9]	Pilot study	Economic sustainability

. Finally, follow-up actions will be developed, with lessons learned and successes shared.

4. Challenges and Future Research

This research is innovative but not free of challenges, including developing a framework that is applicable across the African region. For example, Indigenous female-led institutions and entrepreneurs are a vital resource in securing community commitment. However, their presence and institutional credibility vary across sub-Sahara Africa, making it challenging to apply this model uniformly across low- and lower-income African countries. Each application will require a thorough understanding of the culture, collaboration with the community, and co-production strategies distinct from the practiced traditions [65]. Depending on the purpose of the application, research methodologies such as community-based research [66], participatory action research [7], and even Indigenous knowledge systems [67] such as Africology [68] or glocalization [65] could be required.

Secondly, the black soldier fly waste treatment method is a technology based on living organisms, and this requires the management of environmental and feeding parameters for optimal larvae production [9]. The volume of waste that can be treated depends on the number of larvae available from BSF rearing efforts. Successfully rearing Black Soldier Flies from prepupae through the intricate mating requirements to laying eggs (oviposition) could be challenging [16,69]. This was evidenced in the High River experiment. Susceptibility to this complication is best articulated by Lohri et al.: “the importance of a controlled, efficient rearing regime to produce a defined number of young larvae is often underestimated” [9]. Maintaining a “controlled efficient” will be challenging in a low-income setting with a limited budget; therefore, the raising of wild BSFL to maintain the required colony size will provide significant benefits. Natural BSF colonization could be a more straightforward alternative for first-time BSF entrepreneurs [70]. Larvae production by natural colonization has been successfully implemented in Kenya [70]. However, the study ran over a short duration, i.e., one cycle. A comprehensive study is required to understand the sustainability of the natural BSF colonization technique. Furthermore, the natural colonization method eliminates initial larvae production predictions and constrains waste treatment predictions. If successful, product marketability which impacts sales will also need to be carefully considered and measured. Thirdly, public acceptance of the BSF byproducts will determine the profitability of the venture [1] and consequent project longevity. Additionally, the use of larvae for fish and animal feed is growing in acceptance, but future research is needed to determine the key drivers for change in sustainable agriculture.

A fourth consideration is that in-depth understanding of the products and services on the environment and women through an Africa-based LCA will ensure that problem shifting is absent or mitigated. The LCA will provide vital data for scholars because there is a scarcity of LCA data recorded for Africa compared to other regions of the world [71].

Finally, the segregation of organic waste by the community is essential for the rapid processing of organic waste, which in turn requires the support of individual households as well as the community for the initiative. Economic incentives have been shown to positively impact the behaviour of people towards waste with large-scale environmental action requiring membership to a structured institution [17]. IFÉ will provide this platform while providing economic benefits to organic waste providers [12]. However, this will require operating a profitable IFÉ.

5. Conclusions

This study presented a collaborative Indigenous female institutions’ organizational model that applies circular economy concepts and an affordable biowaste management technique which mitigates a regional-specific waste management challenge. The article outlined distinct environmental, social, and economic considerations to produce a long-lasting, profitable, and inclusive organic waste management system. The study was guided by the research questions: 1. How can sustained biowaste management be achieved through an Indigenous female-led group’s independent management of a black soldier fly (BSF) biowaste treatment program? 2. Which conditions, including affordable technology, social inclusion, market viability, and an enabling environment, will foster a self-sustaining venture? The business concept presented by this study supports Indigenous female institutions using a combination of models, including the circular economy and social circular economy. The concept integrates waste as a resource, facilitates collaboration and cultural appreciation through co-production, incorporates the self-organization skills of a minority group, and uses a simple waste management technique. By developing a gendered model specific to the region, this study contributes to the limited literature on present-day African Indigenous female institutions while defining a low-tech circular economy relevant to the region.