New Insights into Pore Structure and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sodium Hydroxide Alkali-Activated Slag through Advanced Modelling
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Procedure
2.1. Materials
2.2. Methods
2.2.1. Open Porosity
2.2.2. Water Vapour Desorption
2.2.3. BET Method
2.2.4. BJH Method
2.2.5. Hydraulic Conductivity
Boundary Conditions
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Open Porosity
3.2. Water Vapour Desorption
3.3. BET Surface Area
3.4. BJH Pore Size Distribution
- Note that 0.5 M compositions present a small number of micropores compared to the other compositions. The results are in line with what was observed for the porosity and the BET surface area: even though S08M05 presents the highest porosity, its surface area is relatively small due to a coarser pore structure, as visible in Figure 10.
- S08M05 does not present the highest open porosity value as it did during the open porosity test; a possible reason for this is that preliminary tests showed very low mechanical strength that may have allowed for a higher cracking formation during the drying phase in the oven, causing an increase in the number of connected pores and a subsequent higher mass loss. Specifically, the shrinkage experienced by the material due to the drying process leads to the appearance of tensile stresses that can cause the formation of microcracks, especially for materials with very low tensile strength [5]. As a consequence, the microcracks may increase the volume of open pores observed during the test [77,78]. S05M05 shows the same behaviour if compared to low s/b compositions.
3.5. Hydraulic Conductivity
4. Conclusions
- Increasing the molarity of the activating solution refines the pore structure of the material.
- Increasing the solution-to-binder ratio not only increases the total porosity but also seems to refine the pore structure itself.
- High molarity compositions are not suitable for tests in high relative humidity conditions where carbonation takes place, as deliquescence greatly affects the results obtained.
- The tests on the total porosity of 0.5 M compositions show a discrepancy, possibly due to the test conditions and the low mechanical strength.
- The model proved to be able to predict the desorption isotherms from short drying experiments for AAS as well.
- The leading drying mechanism of alkali-activated slag is water vapour transport, making it fundamentally different from that of PC.
- The kinetics of drying strongly depends on external relative humidity, especially between 85 and 50%, which is the typical external RH.
- The modelling of the hydraulic conductivity is not applicable to high molarity conditions due to mechanical and modelling reasons, but also for the chemical activity—namely, carbonation and deliquescence—which fall out of the applicability of the model used, as it considers a fixed and unreactive microstructure.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AAS | alkali-activated slag |
OPC | ordinary Portland cement |
s/b | solution-to-binder ratio |
RH | relative humidity |
WVD | water vapour desorption |
DoS | degree of saturation |
BET | Brunauer–Emmett–Teller |
BJH | Barret–Joyner–Halenda |
HSDB | Hazardous Substances Data Bank |
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Oxide | CaO | SiO2 | Al2O3 | MgO | SO3 | TiO2 | Fe2O3 | K2O | Na2O | MnO | BaO |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Content [%] | 40.8 | 33.3 | 12.3 | 7.8 | 2.3 | 1.3 | 0.4 | 0.7 | 0.4 | 0.4 | 0.3 |
Composition | Solution-to-Binder Ratio | NaOH Concentration [M] | Sand-to-Paste Ratio | Water-to-Binder Ratio |
---|---|---|---|---|
S05M05 | 0.5 | 0.5 | 1 | 0.49 |
S05M2 | 2 | 0.44 | ||
S05M8 | 8 | 0.29 | ||
S08M05 | 0.8 | 0.5 | 0.77 | |
S08M2 | 2 | 0.69 | ||
S08M8 | 8 | 0.43 |
RH | 98% | 85% | 75% | 55% | 33% | 11% |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Salt | K2SO4 | KCl | NaCl | Mg(NO3)2 | MgCl2 | LiCl |
S05M05 | S05M2 | S05M8 | S08M05 | S08M2 | S08M8 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes | Yes | No | No | Yes | Only between 11 and 55% RH |
Parameter | S05M05 | S05M2 | S05M8 | S08M05 | S08M2 | S08M8 | PC | Min | Max |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1.94 × 10−21 | 1.11 × 10−23 | 3.23 × 10−22 | 3.57 × 10−22 | 7.22 × 10−22 | 2.31 × 10−20 | 4.68 × 10−22 | - | - | |
10.23 | 1.37 | 1.05 | 0.82 | 1.03 | 1.95 | 1.65 | - | - | |
0.91 | 1.37 | 1.05 | 0.82 | 1.03 | 1.95 | 1.65 | - | - | |
1.09 | 0.99 | 0.28 | 1.72 | 0.54 | 0.20 | 0.39 | - | - | |
1.09 | 0.99 | 0.28 | 1.72 | 0.54 | 0.20 | 0.39 | - | - | |
4.11 | 5.00 | 5.00 | 1.62 | 4.68 | 5.00 | −1.57 | −4.00 | 5.00 | |
2.02 | 2.72 | 3.02 | 2.70 | 2.61 | 1.63 | 3.00 | 1.30 | 2.74 | |
3.48 | 0.86 | 4.88 | 4.29 | 1.38 | 2.81 | 3.72 | 3.30 | 4.20 |
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Sirotti, M.; Carette, J.; Staquet, S. New Insights into Pore Structure and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sodium Hydroxide Alkali-Activated Slag through Advanced Modelling. Materials 2024, 17, 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020363
Sirotti M, Carette J, Staquet S. New Insights into Pore Structure and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sodium Hydroxide Alkali-Activated Slag through Advanced Modelling. Materials. 2024; 17(2):363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020363
Chicago/Turabian StyleSirotti, Marco, Jérôme Carette, and Stéphanie Staquet. 2024. "New Insights into Pore Structure and Hydraulic Conductivity of Sodium Hydroxide Alkali-Activated Slag through Advanced Modelling" Materials 17, no. 2: 363. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020363