Hydrogen Storage for Mobility: A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Hydrogen for Mobility
2.1. Overall Efficiency
2.2. Costs of Battery vs. Fuel Cell
2.3. Practical Advantages of Fuel Cells
3. Ideal Storage Method
4. Present Industry Choice: Compressed Gas
5. Other Storage Methods
5.1. Liquid Hydrogen
5.2. Cold/Cryo Compression
5.3. Metal–Organic Framework
5.4. Carbon Nanostructures
5.5. Metal Hydrides
5.6. Metal Borohydrides
5.7. Kubas-Type Hydrogen
5.8. Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers
5.9. Chemical Hydrogen
6. Overview
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Property | Hydrogen | Natural Gas |
---|---|---|
Lower heating value (LHV, MJ/kg) | 120 [53] | 52 [53] |
Higher heating value (HHV, MJ/kg) | 142 [53] | 47 [53] |
Density at 273 K (kg/m3) | 0.09 [54] | 0.65 [54] |
Boiling point at atmospheric pressure(K) | 20.3 [54] | 111.2 [55] |
Liquid density (kg/m3) | 70.8 [54] | 450.0 [55] |
Flammability concentration limits in air (vol %) | 4–75 [54] | 5–15 [54] |
Diffusion coefficient in air (cm2/s) | 0.61 [54] | 0.16 [54] |
Storage System Targets | Gravimetric Density System (wt %) | Volumetric Density System (MJ/L) | Cost ($/kWh) |
---|---|---|---|
Current status (700 bar compressed) | 4.2 | 2.9 | 15 |
2020 | 4.5 | 3.6 | 10 |
Ultimate | 6.5 | 6.1 | 8 |
Type | Materials | Typical Pressure (bar) | Cost ($/kg) | Gravimetric Density (wt %) |
---|---|---|---|---|
I | All-metal construction | 300 | 83 | 1.7 |
II | Mostly metal, composite overwrap in the hoop direction | 200 | 86 | 2.1 |
III | Metal liner, full composite overwrap | 700 | 700 [65] | 4.2 [66] |
IV | All-composite construction | 700 | 633 [65] | 5.7 (Toyota Mirai) |
Method | Gravimetric Energy Density (wt %) | Volumetric Energy Density (MJ/L) | Temperature (K) | Pressure (barg) | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Compressed | 5.7 | 4.9 | 293 | 700 | Current industry standard |
Liquid | 7.5 | 6.4 | 20 | 0 | Boil-off constitues major disadvantage |
Cold/cryo compressed | 5.4 | 4.0 | 40–80 | 300 | Boil-off constitues major disadvantage |
MOF | 4.5 | 7.2 | 78 | 20–100 | Attractive densities only at very low temperatures. |
Carbon nanostructures | 2.0 | 5.0 | 298 | 100 | Volumetric density based on powder density of 2.1 g/mL and 2.0 wt % storage capacity. |
Metal hydrides | 7.6 | 13.2 | 260–425 | 20 | Requires thermal management system. |
Metal borohydrides | 14.9–18.5 | 9.8–17.6 | 130 | 105 | Low temperature, high pressure thermal management required |
Kubas-type | 10.5 | 23.6 | 293 | 120 | |
LOHC | 8.5 | 7 | 293 | 0 | Highly endo/exothermal requires processing plant and catalyst. Not suitable for mobility |
Chemical | 15.5 | 11.5 | 298 | 10 | Requires SOFC fuel cell. |
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Rivard, E.; Trudeau, M.; Zaghib, K. Hydrogen Storage for Mobility: A Review. Materials 2019, 12, 1973. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121973
Rivard E, Trudeau M, Zaghib K. Hydrogen Storage for Mobility: A Review. Materials. 2019; 12(12):1973. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121973
Chicago/Turabian StyleRivard, Etienne, Michel Trudeau, and Karim Zaghib. 2019. "Hydrogen Storage for Mobility: A Review" Materials 12, no. 12: 1973. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12121973