Life Cycle GHG of NG-Based Fuel and Electric Vehicle in China
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Natural Gas: A Thriving Energy Resource in China
1.2. Transport Sector: Fast-Growing and Looking for Solutions to Oil Supply Security
1.3. NG-Based Fuel and EVs: Transportation Fuel Options for China
1.4. Lifecycle GHG Analysis: Hot Issue for Transportation Fuels from NG
1.5. The Purpose of this Paper
2. Methodology
2.1. System Boundary and Functional Units
2.2. Calculation Methods for NG-Based Fuels and NG-to-Electricity
2.2.1. Calculation Methods for Life Cycle Energy Use and GHG Emissions
2.2.2. Calculation Methods for Life Cycle GHG Emissions
2.3. Fuel/Vehicle Combination
3. Data and Assumption
3.1. Life Cycle Energy Intensity and GHG Emission Factors of Process Fuels
Process energy | Life cycle intensity | ||
---|---|---|---|
Raw coal | Raw NG | Petroleum | |
MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | MJ/MJ | |
Coal | 1.07 | 0.00 | 0.02 |
NG | 0.04 | 1.06 | 0.05 |
Diesel | 0.07 | 0.06 | 1.14 |
Gasoline | 0.08 | 0.03 | 1.15 |
Residual oil | 0.06 | 0.06 | 1.11 |
Electricity | 2.3 | 0.18 | 0.07 |
Process energy | Upstream CO2 | Upstream CH4 | Upstream N2O | Direct CO2 | Direct CH4 | Direct N2O |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
g/MJ | g/MJ | mg/MJ | g/MJ | g/MJ | mg/MJ | |
Coal | 7.3 | 0.44 | 0.39 | 81.6 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
NG | 10.4 | 0.09 | 0.42 | 57.0 | 0.001 | 0.001 |
Diesel | 19.4 | 0.04 | 0.48 | 72.6 | 0.004 | 0.002 |
Gasoline | 20.2 | 0.05 | 0.49 | 67.9 | 0.080 | 0.002 |
Residual oil | 16.6 | 0.04 | 0.45 | 75.8 | 0.002 | 0 |
Electricity | 203.6 | 0.95 | 3.23 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
3.2. NG-Based Fuels Pathways
Pathway | Time | Plant energy efficiency (LHV)/% | Note |
---|---|---|---|
CNG | Current | 96.9% | Based on the investigation by AERT (2006) [41], CATARC and GM (2007) [42] and CAERC (2012) [11]. |
Future | 97.3% | Prediction by CAERC (2012) [11]. | |
LNG | Current | 95.2% (Electricity as major fuel) | Based on the investigation by CATARC and GM (2007) [42] and CAERC (2012) [11]. |
Future | 90.2% (NG as major fuel) | Prediction by CAERC (2012) [11]. | |
GTL | Current | 54.2% | Based on the investigation by CATARC and GM (2007) [42] and CAERC (2012) [11]. |
Future | 63% | Prediction by Hao et al. (2010) [18]. |
Pathway | Process fuel mix and percentage | Transport mode a |
---|---|---|
CNG | NG (3%) and electricity (97%) | Road vehicle: 100% (50 km) |
LNG | Electricity (100%) | Road vehicle: 100% (100 km) |
GTL | NG (100%) | Railway: 50% (900 km); waterway: 15% (1200 km) and road vehicle: 100% (50 km) |
Mode | Energy consumption intensity/kJ/ton × km | Fuel mix and percentage |
---|---|---|
Railway | 240 | Diesel (55%) and electricity (45%) |
Waterway | 148 | Residual oil (100%) |
Road | 1362 | Diesel (68%) and gasoline (32%) |
Pathway | Diesel | Gasoline | Residual oil | Electricity |
---|---|---|---|---|
CNG | 0.96 | 0.05 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
LNG | 1.93 | 0.09 | 0.00 | 0.00 |
GTL | 1.98 | 0.03 | 5.95 | 0.96 |
3.3. NG-to-Electricity Pathways
Pathway number | Name | Energy efficiency/% |
---|---|---|
1 | NG single cycle (NGSC) | 45 |
2 | NG combined cycle (NGCC) | 50 |
3.4. CCS Capture Rate and Energy Penalty
3.5. Vehicle size and Efficiency in this Study
3.6. Energy Use and GHG Emissions of Vehicle Life Cycle
Type | Unit | Amount |
---|---|---|
Primary energy demand | MJ | 69,108 |
Including, petroleum demand | MJ | 14,545 |
GHG emissions | kg CO2,e | 6,575 |
3.7. Energy Use and GHG Emissions of an Electric Battery
Type | Numbers for 23 kW a | Number for 1 kW | Numbers for 30 kW b |
---|---|---|---|
Fossil fuels/MJ | 2778.87 | 120.82 | 3624.61 |
of which: Coal/MJ | 1357.26 | 59.01 | 1770.34 |
Natural gas/MJ | 943.17 | 41.01 | 1230.22 |
Petroleum/MJ | 478.44 | 20.8 | 624.06 |
GHG/kg CO2-eq | 686.03 | 29.83 | 894.82 |
4. Results
4.1. General Description
4.2. Life Cycle GHG Emissions Results without CCS
4.3. The Impact of CCS
4.4. The Breakdown of Life Cycle GHG Emissions
5. Discussions
5.1. Effect of Substituting Petroleum with NG
5.2. LNG Supplying Modes and Projection in China
5.3. NG Vehicle Development in China
5.4. Energy Use for Battery Manufacture
6. Concluding Remarks
Acknowledgements
Conflict of Interest
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Ou, X.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, X.; Zhang, Q. Life Cycle GHG of NG-Based Fuel and Electric Vehicle in China. Energies 2013, 6, 2644-2662. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052644
Ou X, Zhang X, Zhang X, Zhang Q. Life Cycle GHG of NG-Based Fuel and Electric Vehicle in China. Energies. 2013; 6(5):2644-2662. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052644
Chicago/Turabian StyleOu, Xunmin, Xiliang Zhang, Xu Zhang, and Qian Zhang. 2013. "Life Cycle GHG of NG-Based Fuel and Electric Vehicle in China" Energies 6, no. 5: 2644-2662. https://doi.org/10.3390/en6052644