Figure 1.
Structure of distributed test platform for fuel cell electric vehicle powertrain system.
Figure 1.
Structure of distributed test platform for fuel cell electric vehicle powertrain system.
Figure 2.
Data flow of distributed test platform aimed at transparency research.
Figure 2.
Data flow of distributed test platform aimed at transparency research.
Figure 3.
Structure of fuel cell electric vehicle powertrain system.
Figure 3.
Structure of fuel cell electric vehicle powertrain system.
Figure 4.
Fuel cell equivalent circuit model diagram.
Figure 4.
Fuel cell equivalent circuit model diagram.
Figure 5.
Output power-efficiency curve of fuel cell.
Figure 5.
Output power-efficiency curve of fuel cell.
Figure 6.
Power battery cell open circuit voltage-SOC curve.
Figure 6.
Power battery cell open circuit voltage-SOC curve.
Figure 7.
Relationship between torque, rotating speed, and efficiency.
Figure 7.
Relationship between torque, rotating speed, and efficiency.
Figure 8.
MiniHiL test bench.
Figure 8.
MiniHiL test bench.
Figure 9.
Roundtrip time under different configuration settings.
Figure 9.
Roundtrip time under different configuration settings.
Figure 10.
Speed response of fuel cell powertrain system under different configurations.
Figure 10.
Speed response of fuel cell powertrain system under different configurations.
Figure 11.
(a) Fuel cell output power under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Fuel cell output power under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 11.
(a) Fuel cell output power under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Fuel cell output power under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 12.
(a) Battery output power under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Battery output power under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 12.
(a) Battery output power under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Battery output power under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 13.
(a) Electric motor torque under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Electric motor torque under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 13.
(a) Electric motor torque under Configurations A1–A4; (b) Electric motor torque under Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 14.
Box charts of vehicle speed under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 14.
Box charts of vehicle speed under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 15.
Box charts of fuel cell power under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 15.
Box charts of fuel cell power under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configurations B1–B3.
Figure 16.
Box charts of vehicle speeds under (a) Configuration A1–A4 and (b) Configuration B1–B3.
Figure 16.
Box charts of vehicle speeds under (a) Configuration A1–A4 and (b) Configuration B1–B3.
Figure 17.
Box charts of electric motor torque under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configuration B1–B3.
Figure 17.
Box charts of electric motor torque under (a) Configurations A1–A4 and (b) Configuration B1–B3.
Figure 18.
Summary of transparency types (high, middle, and low) under different configurations.
Figure 18.
Summary of transparency types (high, middle, and low) under different configurations.
Table 1.
Vehicle parameters.
Table 1.
Vehicle parameters.
Name | Parameter | Unit | Symbol |
---|
Vehicle weight | 1600 | kg | |
Transmission ratio | 1 | - | |
Transmission system efficiency | 92 | % | |
Tire radius | 0.3 | m | |
Rolling resistance coefficient | 0.01 | - | |
Air resistance coefficient | 0.35 | - | |
Frontal area | 2.8 | m2 | |
10 °C sea level air density | 1.2 | N·s2·m−4 | |
Rotational mass conversion factor | 1.05 | - | |
Drive torque | - | N·m | |
Vertical speed | - | m/s | |
Vertical acceleration | - | m/s2 | |
Table 2.
Fuel cell symbols.
Table 2.
Fuel cell symbols.
Name | Symbol |
---|
equivalent resistance | Ra |
equivalent capacitor | C |
output current | I |
Ra voltage | |
C voltage | Uc |
fuel cell single voltage | Um |
electromotive force of single cell | E |
internal resistance | Rint |
fuel cell output voltage | Ustack |
number of single cell | n |
output power of the fuel cell | Pfc_out |
Table 3.
Fuel cell values.
Table 3.
Fuel cell values.
Name | Value | Unit |
---|
Single fuel cell internal resistance | 0.0003 | Ω |
Single fuel cell equivalent resistance | 0.0006 | Ω |
Single fuel cell open circuit voltage | 1.037 | V |
Single fuel cell equivalent capacitor | 3 | F |
Fuel cell rated power | 6 | kW |
Fuel cell peak power | 6.5 | kW |
Table 4.
Battery symbols.
Table 4.
Battery symbols.
Name | Symbol |
---|
capacity of battery cell | Qc |
battery cell current | i |
cell open circuit voltage | OCV |
voltage drop in battery cell | Udrop |
battery output power | Pb_out |
battery utilization efficiency function | fP |
battery demand power | Pb_in |
battery voltage | Ub |
system demand power | Pin |
efficiency of fuel cell DC/DC | η |
output power of fuel cell and battery | Pout |
Table 5.
Battery values.
Name | Value | Unit |
---|
Maximum current | 500 | A |
Maximum charge current | −45 | A |
Number of series batteries | 100 | - |
Number of parallel batteries | 20 | - |
Battery cell radius | 0.013 | m |
Battery cell height | 0.065 | m |
Battery cell capacity | 2.3 × 3600 | Ah·s |
C-rate (charge-discharge current/rated capacity) | 1 | C |
Table 6.
Electric motor values.
Table 6.
Electric motor values.
Name | Value | Unit |
---|
Drive Type | 4 In-Wheel Motor | – |
In-Wheel Motor Rated/Peak Power | 4 × 0.8/4 × 2.5 | kW |
Table 7.
Electric motor parameters.
Table 7.
Electric motor parameters.
Parameter | Value |
---|
Rated power | 1.5 kW |
Rated torque | 2.4 Nm |
Maximum rotating speed | 6000 r/min |
Rated rotating speed | 2500 r/min |
Maximum torque | 10.3 Nm |
Table 8.
Configuration settings on location, hardware and software.
Table 8.
Configuration settings on location, hardware and software.
Serial Number | Location | Roundtrip Delay | Operating Environment |
---|
Configuration A1 | Same location | 0 | Simulation environment |
Configuration A2 | Same location | 0.4s | Simulation environment |
Configuration A3 | Same location | Real time campus Ethernet delay | Simulation environment |
Configuration A4 | China and Germany | Real time Internet delay | Simulation environment |
Configuration B1 | Same location | 0 | Simulation environment with MiniHiL |
Configuration B2 | Same location | 0.4s | Simulation environment with MiniHiL |
Configuration B3 | China and Germany | Real time Internet delay | Simulation environment with MiniHiL |
Table 9.
Roundtrip delay parameters.
Table 9.
Roundtrip delay parameters.
Configuration Type | Number of Packets | Min Delay | Max Delay | Average Delay | Standard Deviation |
---|
Configuration A1 | 180,001 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 |
Configuration A2 | 180,001 | 0.4000 | 0.4000 | 0.4000 | 0.0000 |
Configuration A3 | 180,001 | 0.0000 | 4.6000 | 0.3524 | 0.2630 |
Configuration A4 | 180,001 | 0.0000 | 4.4200 | 0.5205 | 0.2513 |
Configuration B1 | 180,001 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 | 0.0000 |
Configuration B2 | 180,001 | 0.4000 | 0.4000 | 0.4000 | 0.0000 |
Configuration B3 | 180,001 | 0.0000 | 5.0400 | 0.5330 | 0.2571 |
Table 10.
The standard deviation of vehicle speed under different configurations (unit: m/s).
Table 10.
The standard deviation of vehicle speed under different configurations (unit: m/s).
| Criterion: Configuration A1 | Criterion: Configuration B1 |
---|
Configuration A2 | Configuration A3 | Configuration A4 | Configuration B2 | Configuration B3 |
---|
Test 1 | 0.0990 | 0.1633 | 0.1541 | 0.1798 | 0.8356 |
Test 2 | 0.0990 | 0.1970 | 0.1720 | 0.1870 | 0.1668 |
Test 3 | 0.0990 | 0.2236 | 0.1502 | 0.1726 | 0.1655 |
Average value | 0.0990 | 0.1946 | 0.1588 | 0.1798 | 0.3893 |
Table 11.
The standard deviation of fuel cell power under different configurations (unit: W).
Table 11.
The standard deviation of fuel cell power under different configurations (unit: W).
| Criterion: Configuration A1 | Criterion: Configuration B1 |
---|
Configuration A2 | Configuration A3 | Configuration A4 | Configuration B2 | Configuration B3 |
---|
Test 1 | 248.4924 | 566.8660 | 419.0964 | 365.9171 | 2686.9 |
Test 2 | 248.4924 | 488.0595 | 372.1072 | 293.0996 | 2644.1 |
Test 3 | 248.4924 | 456.3407 | 396.2455 | 587.1804 | 2653.3 |
Average value | 248.4924 | 503.7554 | 395.8164 | 415.3990 | 2661.4 |
Table 12.
The standard deviation of power battery power under different configurations (unit: W).
Table 12.
The standard deviation of power battery power under different configurations (unit: W).
| Criterion: Configuration A1 | Criterion: Configuration B1 |
---|
Configuration A2 | Configuration A3 | Configuration A4 | Configuration B2 | Configuration B3 |
---|
Test 1 | 547.2865 | 2164.2 | 830.0621 | 1102.7 | 3428.1 |
Test 2 | 547.2865 | 1044.4 | 930.7343 | 1278.9 | 1624.4 |
Test 3 | 547.2865 | 1184.2 | 861.0848 | 1121.2 | 1609.4 |
Average value | 547.2865 | 1464.3 | 873.9604 | 1167.6 | 2200.6 |
Table 13.
The standard deviation of electric motor torque under different configurations (unit: Nm).
Table 13.
The standard deviation of electric motor torque under different configurations (unit: Nm).
| Criterion: Configuration A1 | Criterion: Configuration B1 |
---|
Configuration A2 | Configuration A3 | Configuration A4 | Configuration B2 | Configuration B3 |
---|
Test 1 | 3.5937 | 4.3321 | 5.8564 | 4.5379 | 36.2328 |
Test 2 | 3.5937 | 4.1277 | 5.8548 | 4.2710 | 16.9457 |
Test 3 | 3.5937 | 4.3115 | 5.9193 | 4.7106 | 39.9875 |
Average value | 3.5937 | 4.2571 | 5.8768 | 4.5065 | 31.0553 |
Table 14.
Variance homogeneity test result of vehicle speed.
Table 14.
Variance homogeneity test result of vehicle speed.
Criterion | Levene | df1 | df2 | Significance |
---|
Configuration A1 | 0.936 | 3 | 720,000 | 0.422 |
Configuration B1 | 3.508 | 2 | 540,000 | 0.030 |
Table 15.
Variance homogeneity test result of fuel cell output power.
Table 15.
Variance homogeneity test result of fuel cell output power.
Criterion | Levene | df1 | df2 | Significance |
---|
Configuration A1 | 6.973 | 3 | 720,000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1 | 750.686 | 2 | 540,000 | 0.000 |
Table 16.
Variance homogeneity test result of battery output power.
Table 16.
Variance homogeneity test result of battery output power.
Criterion | Levene | df1 | df2 | Significance |
---|
Configuration A1 | 28.844 | 3 | 720,000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1 | 120.278 | 2 | 540,000 | 0.000 |
Table 17.
Variance homogeneity test result of electric motor output torque.
Table 17.
Variance homogeneity test result of electric motor output torque.
Criterion | Levene | df1 | df2 | Significance |
---|
Configuration A1 | 546.631 | 3 | 720,000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1 | 542.999 | 2 | 540,000 | 0.000 |
Table 18.
Comparison of two configurations under different configurations.
Table 18.
Comparison of two configurations under different configurations.
Sample1-Sample2 | Test Statistic | Std. Test Statistic | Sig. | Adj. Sig. |
---|
Configuration A1–A3 | 529.265 | 0.611 | 0.541 | 1.000 |
Configuration A3–A4 | −667.577 | −0.771 | 0.441 | 1.000 |
Configuration A2–A3 | 743.746 | 0.859 | 0.390 | 1.000 |
Configuration A1–A4 | −138.311 | −0.160 | 0.873 | 1.000 |
Configuration A1–A2 | −214.480 | −0.248 | 0.804 | 1.000 |
Configuration A2–A4 | 76.169 | 0.088 | 0.930 | 1.000 |
Configuration B1–B2 | 1450.539 | 2.794 | 0.005 | 0.016 |
Configuration B1–B3 | 1312.237 | 2.528 | 0.011 | 0.034 |
Configuration B2–B3 | −138.302 | −0.266 | 0.790 | 1.000 |
Table 19.
Comparison of two parameters under different configurations.
Table 19.
Comparison of two parameters under different configurations.
Sample1-Sample2 | Test Statistics | Std. Test Statistic | Sig. | Adj. Sig. |
---|
Configuration A1–A3 | −1478.020 | −2.206 | 0.027 | 0.164 |
Configuration A1–A2 | −3761.324 | −5.615 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A1–A4 | −3976.797 | −5.936 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A2–A3 | 2283.304 | 3.408 | 0.001 | 0.004 |
Configuration A3–A4 | −2498.778 | −3.730 | 0.000 | 0.001 |
Configuration A2–A4 | −215.473 | −0.322 | 0.748 | 1.000 |
Configuration B1–B2 | 5665.610 | 12.855 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1–B3 | 8675.123 | 19.683 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B2–B3 | 3009.513 | 6.828 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Table 20.
Comparisons of two parameters under different configurations.
Table 20.
Comparisons of two parameters under different configurations.
Sample1-Sample2 | Test Statistics | Std. Test Statistic | Sig. | Adj. Sig. |
---|
Configuration A1–A3 | −2555.392 | −3.804 | 0.000 | 0.001 |
Configuration A1–A2 | −3137.662 | −4.671 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A1–A4 | −6808.588 | −10.136 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A2–A3 | 582.270 | 0.867 | 0.386 | 1.000 |
Configuration A3–A4 | −4253.197 | −6.332 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A2–A4 | −3670.927 | −5.465 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1–B2 | 5470.632 | 10.681 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1–B3 | 8268.968 | 16.145 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B2–B3 | 2798.335 | 5.464 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Table 21.
Comparison of two parameters under different configurations.
Table 21.
Comparison of two parameters under different configurations.
Sample1-Sample2 | Test Statistics | Std. Test Statistic | Sig. | Adj. Sig. |
---|
Configuration A1–A3 | −3822.682 | −4.414 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A1–A2 | −4214.088 | −4.866 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A1–A4 | −5229.778 | −6.039 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration A2–A3 | 391.406 | 0.452 | 0.651 | 1.000 |
Configuration A3–A4 | −1407.096 | −1.625 | 0.104 | 1.000 |
Configuration A2–A4 | −1015.690 | −1.173 | 0.241 | 1.000 |
Configuration B1–B2 | 15285.072 | 29.436 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B1–B3 | 24847.990 | 47.852 | 0.000 | 0.000 |
Configuration B2–B3 | 9562.919 | 18.416 | 0.000 | 0.000 |