Electromagnetic Biostimulation of Living Cultures for Biotechnology, Biofuel and Bioenergy Applications
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Electromagnetic Experiments
- Predominantly magnetic fields: Near-field regime (Permanent, slowly changing, and pulsed fields from magnetic coils)
- Predominantly electric fields: Near-field regime (Permanent or slowly changing)
- Fields with both electric and magnetic components, with ratios between 0.1 and 10: Far-field regime (typical EMF oscillation frequency is 100 kHz or more)
- Fields from (I, II, or III) with unique spatial and/or temporal topology
3. Biostimulation by Electromagnetic Fields
3.1. Group I: Treatments Involving Magnetic Field Predominance
3.1.1. Growth
3.1.2. Photosynthesis and Cell Constituents
3.1.3. Other Physiological Processes
3.1.3.1. Ethanol Fermentation
3.1.3.2. Anti-Oxidant Defense System
3.1.3.3. Biodegradation
3.1.4. Genetic Machinery and Molecular Mechanisms
3.2. Group II: Treatments Involving Electric Field Predominance
3.3. Group III: Treatments Involving both Electric and Magnetic Fields in Far-Field Regime
3.4. Group IV: Treatments with Spatial/Temporal Topology
3.4.1. Spatial Superposition
3.4.2. Spatial and Temporal Superposition
3.4.3. Multipolar Electromagnetic Systems
4. Mechanism of Electromagnetic Effects
4.1. Ionization and Free Radical Release
4.2. Electrochemical Models
4.2.1. Ion Cyclotron Resonance Concept
4.2.2. Stochastic Resonance Amplification
4.2.3. Long Range Molecular Organization
4.2.4. Josephson Semiconductor Model
4.2.5. Protein Symmetry
4.2.6. Physical Signals in Intermolecular Communication
4.2.7. Electromagnetic Cell Functions
4.2.8. Quantum Physics and Coherence in Biology
4.2.9. Bioelectromagnetics for Non-Chemical Communication and Signaling
4.2.10. Endogenous EMF Modeling
4.2.11. Role of Water
5. Electromagnetic Applications for Production of Algae Biofuels
6. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
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- Cell Membrane
- - Magnetic field oscillations may increase membrane permeability under ion cyclotron resonance
- - Increased circulation and selective enhancement of ion flow may affect the rate of biochemical reactions
- - Alter the rate of binding of calcium ions to enzymes or receptor sites
- - Change distribution of protein and lipid domains, and conformational changes in lipid-protein associations
- - Change internal molecular distribution of electronic charge inside lipid molecule in the membrane bilayer
- - May play the primary role in the stochastic resonance amplification process
- Chloroplast
- - May modulate the quantity of pigments, such as chlorophyll, phycocyanin, and beta-carotene
- Nucleus/DNA
- - Magnetic field affects specific gene expression
- - Individual DNA sequences may function as antennae
- - Leads to changes in DNA conformation
- - May activate different DNA sequences depending on field intensity
- - Can affect enzyme activity
- Proteins:
- - Breathing motions are the source and receiver of multipole EMF
- - Potential coupling mechanism for external multipolar influences
- Protoplasm
- - Static magnetic fields influence the speed of protoplasm movement, miotic activity, and quantity of organic acids in plants
- Whole Cell
- - Biophotonic emission and interaction with nearby cells
- - Endogenous electric field modulation may alter natural processes
Organism | Class* | EM Intensity | Biological effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Archaea | ||||
Methanosarcina barkeri | MW | 13.5–36.5 GHz | Increase in growth, cell count and size and methane production | [5] |
Eubacteria | ||||
PMF | 0.05–1 mT | Stimulated transposition activity & reduced cell viability | [6] | |
AC MF | 16, 60 Hz | Enolase activity stimulation; Suppression of enolase activity | [7] | |
0.05–1 mT | Reduced transposition activity & enhanced cell viability | [6] | ||
E. coli | OMF | 100 mT | Exposure time dependent stimulation or inhibition of cell viability | [8] |
30 μT | Cell density dependent changes in AVTD | [9] | ||
DC EF | NA | Increase in growth, removal of inhibitory compounds in medium | [10] | |
AC MF | 0.1–1 mT @ 50 Hz | Significant morphotype changes & alteration during cell division | [11] | |
ACEF | 2.5–50 V/cm @ 0.05–100 kHz | Stimulation of membrane bound ATP synthesis, optimum at 100 Hz | [12] | |
6-polar ACEF | 0.35–2.1 kHz for test tubes 60 Hz for Petri dishes | Increase in growth in test tubes (147 ± 24%) and colonies (42–179%) | [13,14] | |
Bacillus cereus | 6-polar ACEF | 1 kHz | Increase in growth in tubes (196 ± 29%) and colonies | [13,14] |
B. mucilaginosus | SMF | ~0.39 T | Increase in growth | [15] |
B. subtilis | AC MF | 0.8, 2.5 mT, 0.8 and 1 kHz | Growth increase and interestingly a loss of intercellular cohesion | [16] |
Paper to be seen | AC MF | 0–0.3 Hz @ 5−90 mT | Elevated or even diminished growth rates for Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, Halobacterium, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococci | [17] |
Pseudomonas stutzeri | PMF | 0.6–1.3 mT | Increase in growth | [18] |
Trichoderma reesei | PMF | 1.5 mV cm−1 | Increase in growth, cellulase activity and secretion | [19] |
Streptomyces noursei | PMF | 1.5 mV cm−1 | Increased antibiotic production, O2 evolution, glucose uptake | [20] |
Salmonella typhimurium | OMF | 15 mT@ 0.3Hz | Growth stimulation, Mutation reversion rate unaffected | [17] |
Micrococcus denitrificans | SMF | 500–800 mT | Growth inhibition followed by stimulation after 6 h | [21] |
Corynebacterium glutamicum | AC MF | 4.9 mT, 50 Hz | Increase in ATP levels by about 30% | [22] |
Natural Flora | SMF | 22 mT | Enhanced degradation of phenolic waste liquors | [23] |
Natural Flora | PEF | 1.25 – 3.25 kVcm−1 | Enhanced biosorption of uranium | [24] |
Bacteria & yeast | OMF | 15 mT@ 0.3 Hz | Larger increase (30%) in growth in gram –ve (Psuedomonas aeruginosa, Halobacterium halobium) than gram +ve (Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus epidermidis) and yeast (Candida albicans) | [17] |
Rhodobacter sphaeroides | AC/DC MF | 0.13–0.3 T | Increase in porphyrin synthesis, Enhanced expression of 5-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase | [25] |
Cyanobacteria | ||||
Spirulina platensis | SMF | 10 mT | Increase in growth (50%), O2, sugar, phycocyanin | [26] |
250 mT | Increase in growth (22%), CNP-Uptake, Chl, minerals | [27] | ||
MW | 7.1 mm @ 2.2mWcm−2 | Increased growth (50%) | [28] | |
Anabaena doliolum | SMF | 300 mT | Increase in growth, pigments, carbohydrate and protein | [29] |
Algae | ||||
Chlorella vulgaris | SMF | 10–35 mT | Increase in growth (100%); Stimulated antioxidant defense | [30] |
Chlorella sp. | SMF | 6–58 mT | Increase in growth (NA) | [31] |
Dunaliella salina | SMF | 10–23 mT | Increase in growth (90%), and β-carotene | [32] |
Scenedesmus sp. | PEF | NA | Enhanced oil extraction- Solvent+Electroporation | [33] |
Yeast | ||||
Saccharomyces cerevisiae | PMF | ~ 4.7 μT | Increased activity of alcohol dehydrogenase | [34] |
OMF+SMF | 20 mT + 8 mT | Increase in ethanol, sugar utilization | [35] | |
S. cerevisiae | OMF | 0.28–12 mT | Increase in growth | [36] |
OMF | 0.2–12 mT @ 50 Hz | Increase in growth (25 +/− 5%) | [37] | |
AC/DC EF | 100/10 mA | Increase in growth, organic acid production, cell budding | [38] | |
MW | 42GHz@ < 3 mWcm−2 | Frequency dependent increase or decrease in growth | [39] | |
6-polar ACEF | 1 kHz | Increase in gas production (195 ± 20%) | [13,14] | |
AC MF | 0.5 μT, 100 200 Hz | 30% reduction in respiration | [40] | |
Saccharomyces sp. | Better UV survival in those given magnetic pretreatment | [41] | ||
[42] | ||||
Respiration stimulation | ||||
S. fragilis | SMF | ~0.26 T | Increase in growth (27–36%) | [15] |
Kluyveromyces marxianus | PEF | 0.25 kV | Increased ethanol production and cellobiose utilization | [43] |
Physarum polycephalum | ELF EMF | 45,60,75 Hz | Delayed mitosis by 0.5 to 2 h | [44] |
AC MF | 0.1 mT, 60 Hz | Lower ATP levels but no decreased respiration | [45,46] | |
0.2 mT and 60 and 75 Hz | Reduced respiration | |||
Protozoa | ||||
Trichomonas vaginalis | SMF | Field strength dependent growth stimulation/inhibition | [47] | |
Ciliophora | ||||
Paramecium tetraurelia | AC MF | 1.8 mT, 72 Hz | Ca2+ specific increase in cell division rates, absent in the presence of a Ca2+ blocker, Alterations in membrane fluidity | [48] |
Tetrahymena pyriformis | AC MF | 10 mT, 60 Hz | Delayed cell division and increased oxygen uptake | [49] |
Culture | Experiment | Effect | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
Daphnia | D.I. & S.E. | Established destructive interference found at natural population density | [125] |
D. tertiolecta | D.I. & D.L. | Changes in external environment demonstrated dose/intensity dependent decay curves | [126] |
P. elegans | D.I. w/E-Field | E-field stimulated distant culture’s photonic activity and synchronization | [127,128] |
Gonyaulax sp. | D.I. | Established destructive interference and synchronization of photon pulses | [129] |
XC tumor cells | D.I. | Dense cell culture stimulated growth rate of isolated culture via optical contact | [116] |
Epithelial cells | D.I. w/H2O2 | Reduction in protein, increased nuclear activation, and structural damage | [130] |
E. coli | D.I. | Synchronized growth parameters when in optical contact of Vis-IR. | [96] |
S. cerevisiae | D.I. | Stimulation of cellular subdivision via optical coupling with culture of same type | [131] |
P. fluorescens | D.I. | Long range interactions of an isolated culture diminished adhesion between cells of another culture | [132] |
V. costicola | D.I. | Isolated treated culture stimulated growth of second culture of same species | [133] |
Fibroblasts | D.I. w/Viruses | Three viral effects transferred to 72–78% of distant isolated cells | [134] |
D.I. w/HgCl2 | Effects transferred to 78% of distant isolated cells | ||
D.I. w/Rad | UV radiation effects transferred to 82% of distant isolated cells | ||
L. pekennisis | S.E. | Measured coherent emission from 200–800 nm which differed between male and female specimens | [135] |
Biomedical | Influence | Application | Reference |
---|---|---|---|
PEMF | Chronic wound healing, and non-union fracture healing | [172] | |
Chronic wound healing | [173] | ||
Treatment of osteonecrosis | [174] | ||
Treatment of pressure ulcers in spinal-cord injuries | [175] | ||
Treatment of osteoarthritis of the knee | [176] | ||
Treatment of grade I & II ankle sprains | [177] | ||
Treatment of venous leg ulceration | [178] | ||
Agricultural | Influence | Application | Reference |
SMF | Treated water to stimulate germination in Pinus tropicalis seeds | [179] | |
Treated chickpea seeds increased germination, seedling and root length & size | [180] | ||
Treated water increased plant height, branch number, and shoot dry weight | [181] | ||
Treated wheat seeds increased germination, yields, and protein | [182] | ||
Treated rice seeds and water increased rate and % of germination | [183] | ||
Treated barley seeds and water increased length and weight | [184] | ||
OMF | Treated tomato seeds for increased growth, yields, and disease resistance | [185] |
© 2009 by the authors; licensee Molecular Diversity Preservation International, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/).
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Hunt, R.W.; Zavalin, A.; Bhatnagar, A.; Chinnasamy, S.; Das, K.C. Electromagnetic Biostimulation of Living Cultures for Biotechnology, Biofuel and Bioenergy Applications. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2009, 10, 4515-4558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms10104515
Hunt RW, Zavalin A, Bhatnagar A, Chinnasamy S, Das KC. Electromagnetic Biostimulation of Living Cultures for Biotechnology, Biofuel and Bioenergy Applications. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2009; 10(10):4515-4558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms10104515
Chicago/Turabian StyleHunt, Ryan W., Andrey Zavalin, Ashish Bhatnagar, Senthil Chinnasamy, and Keshav C. Das. 2009. "Electromagnetic Biostimulation of Living Cultures for Biotechnology, Biofuel and Bioenergy Applications" International Journal of Molecular Sciences 10, no. 10: 4515-4558. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms10104515