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13 pages, 5898 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Using Inertial Measurement Units to Examine Selected Joint Kinematics in a Road Cycling Sprint: A Series of Single Cases

by Simon Richard Morbey, Marius Tronslien, Kunho Kong, Dale W. Chapman and Kevin Netto

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3453; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113453 - 27 May 2024

Viewed by 219

Abstract

Sprinting plays a significant role in determining the results of road cycling races worldwide. However, currently, there is a lack of systematic research into the kinematics of sprint cycling, especially in an outdoor, environmentally valid setting. This study aimed to describe selected joint [...] Read more.

Sprinting plays a significant role in determining the results of road cycling races worldwide. However, currently, there is a lack of systematic research into the kinematics of sprint cycling, especially in an outdoor, environmentally valid setting. This study aimed to describe selected joint kinematics during a cycling sprint outdoors. Three participants were recorded sprinting over 60 meters in both standing and seated sprinting positions on an outdoor course with a baseline condition of seated cycling at 20 km/h. The participants were recorded using array-based inertial measurement units to collect joint excursions of the upper and lower limbs including the trunk. A high-rate GPS unit was used to record velocity during each recorded condition. Kinematic data were analyzed in a similar fashion to running gait, where multiple pedal strokes were identified, delineated, and averaged to form a representative (average ± SD) waveform. Participants maintained stable kinematics in most joints studied during the baseline condition, but variations in ranges of movement were recorded during seated and standing sprinting. Discernable patterns started to emerge for several kinematic profiles during standing sprinting. Alternate sprinting strategies emerged between participants and bilateral asymmetries were also recorded in the individuals tested. This approach to studying road cycling holds substantial potential for researchers wishing to explore this sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

16 pages, 1283 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sensory–Motor Loop Adaptation in Boolean Network Robots

by Michele Braccini, Yuri Gardinazzi, Andrea Roli and Marco Villani

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3393; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113393 - 24 May 2024

Viewed by 240

Abstract

Recent technological advances have made it possible to produce tiny robots equipped with simple sensors and effectors. Micro-robots are particularly suitable for scenarios such as exploration of hostile environments, and emergency intervention, e.g., in areas subject to earthquakes or fires. A crucial desirable [...] Read more.

Recent technological advances have made it possible to produce tiny robots equipped with simple sensors and effectors. Micro-robots are particularly suitable for scenarios such as exploration of hostile environments, and emergency intervention, e.g., in areas subject to earthquakes or fires. A crucial desirable feature of such a robot is the capability of adapting to the specific environment in which it has to operate. Given the limited computational capabilities of a micro-robot, this property cannot be achieved by complicated software but it rather should come from the flexibility of simple control mechanisms, such as the sensory–motor loop. In this work, we explore the possibility of equipping simple robots controlled by Boolean networks with the capability of modulating their sensory–motor loop such that their behavior adapts to the incumbent environmental conditions. This study builds upon the cybernetic concept of homeostasis, which is the property of maintaining essential parameters inside vital ranges, and analyzes the performance of adaptive mechanisms intervening in the sensory–motor loop. In particular, we focus on the possibility of maneuvering the robot’s effectors such that both their connections to network nodes and environmental features can be adapted. As the actions the robot takes have a feedback effect to its sensors mediated by the environment, this mechanism makes it possible to tune the sensory–motor loop, which, in turn, determines the robot’s behavior. We study this general setting in simulation and assess to what extent this mechanism can sustain the homeostasis of the robot. Our results show that controllers made of random Boolean networks in critical and chaotic regimes can be tuned such that their homeostasis in different environments is kept. This outcome is a step towards the design and deployment of controllers for micro-robots able to adapt to different environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

34 pages, 1438 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reliability of Obstacle-Crossing Parameters during Overground Walking in Young Adults

by Matthias Chardon, Fabio Augusto Barbieri, Pascal Petit and Nicolas Vuillerme

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3387; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113387 - 24 May 2024

Viewed by 213

Abstract

We aimed to evaluate the intra-session relative and absolute reliability of obstacle-crossing parameters during overground walking in young adults, and to determine the number of trials required to ensure reliable assessment. We analysed data from 43 young male adults who were instructed to [...] Read more.

We aimed to evaluate the intra-session relative and absolute reliability of obstacle-crossing parameters during overground walking in young adults, and to determine the number of trials required to ensure reliable assessment. We analysed data from 43 young male adults who were instructed to walk at a self-selected velocity on a pathway and to step over an obstacle (height = 15 cm; width = 80 cm, thickness = 2 cm) three times. Spatial–temporal gait parameters of the approaching and crossing phases (i.e., before and after the obstacle) and obstacle clearance parameters (i.e., vertical and horizontal distance between the foot and the obstacle during crossing) were computed using a three-dimensional motion analysis system. Intraclass correlation coefficients were used to compute the relative reliability, while standard error of measurement and minimal detectable change were used to assess the absolute reliability for all possible combinations between trials. Results showed that most spatial–temporal gait parameters and obstacle clearance parameters are reliable using the average of three trials. However, the mean of the second and third trials ensures the best relative and absolute reliabilities of most obstacle-crossing parameters. Further works are needed to generalize these results in more realistic conditions and in other populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

21 pages, 2421 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Shape Sensing and Kinematic Control of a Cable-Driven Continuum Robot Based on Stretchable Capacitive Sensors

by Wenjun Shen, Jianhui He, Guilin Yang, Xiangjie Kong, Haotian Bai and Zaojun Fang

Sensors 2024, 24(11), 3385; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113385 - 24 May 2024

Viewed by 221

Abstract

A Cable−Driven Continuum Robot (CDCR) that consists of a set of identical Cable−Driven Continuum Joint Modules (CDCJMs) is proposed in this paper. The CDCJMs merely produce 2−DOF bending motions by controlling driving cable lengths. In each CDCJM, a pattern−based flexible backbone is employed [...] Read more.

A Cable−Driven Continuum Robot (CDCR) that consists of a set of identical Cable−Driven Continuum Joint Modules (CDCJMs) is proposed in this paper. The CDCJMs merely produce 2−DOF bending motions by controlling driving cable lengths. In each CDCJM, a pattern−based flexible backbone is employed as a passive compliant joint to generate 2−DOF bending deflections, which can be characterized by two joint variables, i.e., the bending direction angle and the bending angle. However, as the bending deflection is determined by not only the lengths of the driving cables but also the gravity and payload, it will be inaccurate to compute the two joint variables with its kinematic model. In this work, two stretchable capacitive sensors are employed to measure the bending shape of the flexible backbone so as to accurately determine the two joint variables. Compared with FBG−based and vision−based shape−sensing methods, the proposed method with stretchable capacitive sensors has the advantages of high sensitivity to the bending deflection of the backbone, ease of implementation, and cost effectiveness. The initial location of a stretchable sensor is generally defined by its two endpoint positions on the surface of the backbone without bending. A generic shape−sensing model, i.e., the relationship between the sensor reading and the two joint variables, is formulated based on the 2−DOF bending deflection of the backbone. To further improve the accuracy of the shape−sensing model, a calibration method is proposed to compensate for the location errors of stretchable sensors. Based on the calibrated shape−sensing model, a sliding−mode−based closed−loop control method is implemented for the CDCR. In order to verify the effectiveness of the proposed closed−loop control method, the trajectory tracking accuracy experiments of the CDCR are conducted based on a circle trajectory, in which the radius of the circle is

55 mm

. The average tracking errors of the CDCR measured by the Qualisys motion capture system under the open−loop and the closed−loop control are 49.23 and

8.40 mm

, respectively, which is reduced by 82.94%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

20 pages, 4515 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Playing Flappy Bird Based on Motion Recognition Using a Transformer Model and LIDAR Sensor

by Iveta Dirgová Luptáková, Martin Kubovčík and Jiří Pospíchal

Sensors 2024, 24(6), 1905; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24061905 - 16 Mar 2024

Viewed by 681

Abstract

A transformer neural network is employed in the present study to predict Q-values in a simulated environment using reinforcement learning techniques. The goal is to teach an agent to navigate and excel in the Flappy Bird game, which became a popular model for [...] Read more.

A transformer neural network is employed in the present study to predict Q-values in a simulated environment using reinforcement learning techniques. The goal is to teach an agent to navigate and excel in the Flappy Bird game, which became a popular model for control in machine learning approaches. Unlike most top existing approaches that use the game’s rendered image as input, our main contribution lies in using sensory input from LIDAR, which is represented by the ray casting method. Specifically, we focus on understanding the temporal context of measurements from a ray casting perspective and optimizing potentially risky behavior by considering the degree of the approach to objects identified as obstacles. The agent learned to use the measurements from ray casting to avoid collisions with obstacles. Our model substantially outperforms related approaches. Going forward, we aim to apply this approach in real-world scenarios. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

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17 pages, 10025 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Development of a Stereo Vision System to Study the Nutation Movement of Climbing Plants

by Diego Rubén Ruiz-Melero, Aditya Ponkshe, Paco Calvo and Ginés García-Mateos

Sensors 2024, 24(3), 747; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24030747 - 24 Jan 2024

Viewed by 742

Abstract

Climbing plants, such as common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), exhibit complex motion patterns that have long captivated researchers. In this study, we introduce a stereo vision machine system for the in-depth analysis of the movement of climbing plants, using image processing and [...] Read more.

Climbing plants, such as common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), exhibit complex motion patterns that have long captivated researchers. In this study, we introduce a stereo vision machine system for the in-depth analysis of the movement of climbing plants, using image processing and computer vision. Our approach involves two synchronized cameras, one lateral to the plant and the other overhead, enabling the simultaneous 2D position tracking of the plant tip. These data are then leveraged to reconstruct the 3D position of the tip. Furthermore, we investigate the impact of external factors, particularly the presence of support structures, on plant movement dynamics. The proposed method is able to extract the position of the tip in 86–98% of cases, achieving an average reprojection error below 4 px, which means an approximate error in the 3D localization of about 0.5 cm. Our method makes it possible to analyze how the plant nutation responds to its environment, offering insights into the interplay between climbing plants and their surroundings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

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13 pages, 2290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Smart Building Surveillance Systems in Thin Walls: An Efficient Barrier Design

by Taewoo Lee and Hyunbum Kim

Sensors 2024, 24(2), 595; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24020595 - 17 Jan 2024

Viewed by 670

Abstract

This paper introduces an efficient barrier model for enhancing smart building surveillance in harsh environment with thin walls and structures. After the main research problem of minimizing the total number of wall-recognition surveillance barriers, we propose two distinct algorithms, Centralized Node Deployment and [...] Read more.

This paper introduces an efficient barrier model for enhancing smart building surveillance in harsh environment with thin walls and structures. After the main research problem of minimizing the total number of wall-recognition surveillance barriers, we propose two distinct algorithms, Centralized Node Deployment and Adaptation Node Deployment, which are designed to address the challenge by strategic placement of surveillance nodes within the smart building. The Centralized Node Deployment aligns nodes along the thin walls, ensuring consistent communication coverage and effectively countering potential disruptions. Conversely, the Adaptation Node Deployment begins with random node placement, which adapts over time to ensure efficient communication across the building. The novelty of this work is in designing a novel barrier system to achieve energy efficiency and reinforced surveillance in a thin-wall environment. Instead of a real environment, we use an ad hoc server for simulations with various scenarios and parameters. Then, two different algorithms are executed through those simulation environments and settings. Also, with detailed discussions, we provide the performance analysis, which shows that both algorithms deliver similar performance metrics over extended periods, indicating their suitability for long-term operation in smart infrastructure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

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19 pages, 6117 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Feasibility of 3D Body Tracking from Monocular 2D Video Feeds in Musculoskeletal Telerehabilitation

by Carolina Clemente, Gonçalo Chambel, Diogo C. F. Silva, António Mesquita Montes, Joana F. Pinto and Hugo Plácido da Silva

Sensors 2024, 24(1), 206; https://doi.org/10.3390/s24010206 - 29 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1263

Abstract

Musculoskeletal conditions affect millions of people globally; however, conventional treatments pose challenges concerning price, accessibility, and convenience. Many telerehabilitation solutions offer an engaging alternative but rely on complex hardware for body tracking. This work explores the feasibility of a model for 3D Human [...] Read more.

Musculoskeletal conditions affect millions of people globally; however, conventional treatments pose challenges concerning price, accessibility, and convenience. Many telerehabilitation solutions offer an engaging alternative but rely on complex hardware for body tracking. This work explores the feasibility of a model for 3D Human Pose Estimation (HPE) from monocular 2D videos (MediaPipe Pose) in a physiotherapy context, by comparing its performance to ground truth measurements. MediaPipe Pose was investigated in eight exercises typically performed in musculoskeletal physiotherapy sessions, where the Range of Motion (ROM) of the human joints was the evaluated parameter. This model showed the best performance for shoulder abduction, shoulder press, elbow flexion, and squat exercises. Results have shown a MAPE ranging between 14.9% and 25.0%, Pearson’s coefficient ranging between 0.963 and 0.996, and cosine similarity ranging between 0.987 and 0.999. Some exercises (e.g., seated knee extension and shoulder flexion) posed challenges due to unusual poses, occlusions, and depth ambiguities, possibly related to a lack of training data. This study demonstrates the potential of HPE from monocular 2D videos, as a markerless, affordable, and accessible solution for musculoskeletal telerehabilitation approaches. Future work should focus on exploring variations of the 3D HPE models trained on physiotherapy-related datasets, such as the Fit3D dataset, and post-preprocessing techniques to enhance the model’s performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

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15 pages, 1893 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reducing the Impact of Sensor Orientation Variability in Human Activity Recognition Using a Consistent Reference System

by Manuel Gil-Martín, Javier López-Iniesta, Fernando Fernández-Martínez and Rubén San-Segundo

Sensors 2023, 23(13), 5845; https://doi.org/10.3390/s23135845 - 23 Jun 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1084

Abstract

Sensor- orientation is a critical aspect in a Human Activity Recognition (HAR) system based on tri-axial signals (such as accelerations); different sensors orientations introduce important errors in the activity recognition process. This paper proposes a new preprocessing module to reduce the negative impact [...] Read more.

Sensor- orientation is a critical aspect in a Human Activity Recognition (HAR) system based on tri-axial signals (such as accelerations); different sensors orientations introduce important errors in the activity recognition process. This paper proposes a new preprocessing module to reduce the negative impact of sensor-orientation variability in HAR. Firstly, this module estimates a consistent reference system; then, the tri-axial signals recorded from sensors with different orientations are transformed into this consistent reference system. This new preprocessing has been evaluated to mitigate the effect of different sensor orientations on the classification accuracy in several state-of-the-art HAR systems. The experiments were carried out using a subject-wise cross-validation methodology over six different datasets, including movements and postures. This new preprocessing module provided robust HAR performance even when sudden sensor orientation changes were included during data collection in the six different datasets. As an example, for the WISDM dataset, sensors with different orientations provoked a significant reduction in the classification accuracy of the state-of-the-art system (from 91.57 ± 0.23% to 89.19 ± 0.26%). This important reduction was recovered with the proposed algorithm, increasing the accuracy to 91.46 ± 0.30%, i.e., the same result obtained when all sensors had the same orientation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Robust Motion Recognition Based on Sensor Technology)

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