Journal Description
Polymers
Polymers
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Chemistry )
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
- Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
5.0 (2022)
Latest Articles
Mechanochemical Recycling of Flexible Polyurethane Foam Scraps for Quantitative Replacement of Polyol Using Wedge-Block-Reinforced Extruder
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1633; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121633 (registering DOI) - 9 Jun 2024
Abstract
Recycling flexible polyurethane foam (F-PUF) scraps is difficult due to the material’s high cross-linking structure. In this work, a wedge-block-reinforced extruder with a considerable enhanced shear extrusion and stretching area between the rotating screw and the stationary wedge blocks was utilized to recycle
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Recycling flexible polyurethane foam (F-PUF) scraps is difficult due to the material’s high cross-linking structure. In this work, a wedge-block-reinforced extruder with a considerable enhanced shear extrusion and stretching area between the rotating screw and the stationary wedge blocks was utilized to recycle F-PUF scraps into powder containing surface-active hydroxyl groups. The powder was then utilized for the quantitative replacement of polyol in the foaming process. Characterizations showed that the continuous shear extrusion and stretching during the extrusion process reduced the volume mean diameter (VMD) of the F-PUF powder obtained by extruding it three times at room temperature to reach 54 μm. The -OH number (OHN) of the powder prepared by extruding it three times reached 19.51 mgKOH/g due to the mechanochemical effect of the powdering method. The F-PUF containing recycled powder used to quantitively replace 10 wt.% polyol was similar in microstructure and chemical structure to the original F-PUF, with a compression set of 2%, indentation load deflection of 21.3 lbf, resilience of 43.4%, air permeability of 815.7 L/m2·s, tensile strength of 73.0 Kpa, and tear strength of 2.3 N/cm, indicating that the recycling method has potential for industrial applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Preparation, Properties and Application of Polyurethane, Cellulose and Their Composites (2nd Edition))
Open AccessArticle
Albumin-Based Hydrogel Films Covalently Cross-Linked with Oxidized Gellan with Encapsulated Curcumin for Biomedical Applications
by
Camelia Elena Tincu (Iurciuc), Oana Maria Daraba, Christine Jérôme, Marcel Popa and Lăcrămioara Ochiuz
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1631; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121631 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Bovine serum albumin (BSA) hydrogels are non-immunogenic, low-cost, biocompatible, and biodegradable. In order to avoid toxic cross-linking agents, gellan was oxidized with NaIO4 to obtain new functional groups like dialdehydes for protein-based hydrogel cross-linking. The formed dialdehyde groups were highlighted with FT-IR
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Bovine serum albumin (BSA) hydrogels are non-immunogenic, low-cost, biocompatible, and biodegradable. In order to avoid toxic cross-linking agents, gellan was oxidized with NaIO4 to obtain new functional groups like dialdehydes for protein-based hydrogel cross-linking. The formed dialdehyde groups were highlighted with FT-IR and NMR spectroscopy. This paper aims to investigate hydrogel films for biomedical applications obtained by cross-linking BSA with oxidized gellan (OxG) containing immobilized β-cyclodextrin–curcumin inclusion complex (β-CD–Curc) The β-CD–Curc improved the bioavailability and solubility of Curc and was prepared at a molar ratio of 2:1. The film’s structure and morphology were evaluated using FT-IR spectroscopy and SEM. The swelling degree (Q%) values of hydrogel films depend on hydrophilicity and pH, with higher values at pH = 7.4. Additionally, the conversion index of -NH2 groups into Schiff bases increases with an increase in OxG amount. The polymeric matrix provides protection for Curc, is non-cytotoxic, and enhances antioxidant activity. At pH = 5.5, the skin permeability and release efficiency of encapsulated curcumin were higher than at pH = 7.4 because of the interaction of free aldehyde and carboxylic groups from hydrogels with amine groups from proteins present in the skin membrane, resulting in a better film adhesion and more efficient curcumin release.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Networks)
Open AccessArticle
Electrowriting of SU-8 Microfibers
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Diego Armando Sandoval Salaiza, Nico Valsangiacomo, Niyazi Ulas Dinç, Mustafa Yildirim, Jorge Madrid-Wolff, Arnaud Bertsch, Sebastien Jiguet, Paul D. Dalton, Juergen Brugger and Christophe Moser
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1630; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121630 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
As microfiber-based additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, melt electrowriting (MEW) and solution electrowriting (SEW) have demonstrated efficacy with more biomedically relevant materials. By processing SU-8 resin using MEW and SEW techniques, a material with substantially different mechanical, thermal, and optical properties than that typically
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As microfiber-based additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, melt electrowriting (MEW) and solution electrowriting (SEW) have demonstrated efficacy with more biomedically relevant materials. By processing SU-8 resin using MEW and SEW techniques, a material with substantially different mechanical, thermal, and optical properties than that typically processed is introduced. SU-8 polymer is temperature sensitive and requires the devising of a specific heating protocol to be properly processed. Smooth-surfaced microfibers resulted from MEW of SU8 for a short period (from 30 to 90 min), which provides the greatest control and, thus, reproducibility of the printed microfibers. This investigation explores various parameters influencing the electrowriting process, printing conditions, and post-processing to optimize the fabrication of intricate 3D structures. This work demonstrates the controlled generation of straight filaments and complex multi-layered architectures, which were characterized by brightfield, darkfield, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). This research opens new avenues for the design and development of 3D-printed photonic systems by leveraging the properties of SU-8 after both MEW and SEW processing.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Materials and Their Application in 3D Printing, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Isolation and Characterization of Spherical Cellulose Nanocrystals Extracted from the Higher Cellulose Yield of the Jenfokie Plant: Morphological, Structural, and Thermal Properties
by
Solomon Estifo Wossine, Ganesh Thothadri, Habtamu Beri Tufa, Wakshum Mekonnen Tucho, Adil Murtaza, Abhilash Edacherian and Gulam Mohammed Sayeed Ahmed
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1629; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121629 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Scholars are looking for solutions to substitute hazardous substances in manufacturing nanocellulose from bio-sources to preserve the world’s growing environmental consciousness. During the past decade, there has been a notable increase in the use of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in modern science and nanotechnology
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Scholars are looking for solutions to substitute hazardous substances in manufacturing nanocellulose from bio-sources to preserve the world’s growing environmental consciousness. During the past decade, there has been a notable increase in the use of cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) in modern science and nanotechnology advancements because of their abundance, biocompatibility, biodegradability, renewability, and superior mechanical properties. Spherical cellulose nanocrystals (J–CNCs) were successfully synthesized from Jenfokie micro-cellulose (J–MC) via sulfuric acid hydrolysis in this study. The yield (up to 58.6%) and specific surface area (up to 99.64 m2/g) of J–CNCs were measured. A field emission gun–scanning electron microscope (FEG-SEM) was used to assess the morphology of the J–MC and J–CNC samples. The spherical shape nanoparticles with a mean nano-size of 34 nm for J–CNCs were characterized using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). X-ray diffraction (XRD) was used to determine the crystallinity index and crystallinity size of J–CNCs, up to 98.4% and 6.13 nm, respectively. The chemical composition was determined using a Fourier transform infrared (FT–IR) spectroscope. Thermal characterization of thermogravimetry analysis (TGA), derivative thermogravimetry (DTG), and differential thermal analysis (DTA) was conducted to identify the thermal stability and cellulose pyrolysis behavior of both J–MC and J–CNC samples. The thermal analysis of J–CNC indicated lower thermal stability than J–MC. It was noted that J–CNC showed higher levels of crystallinity and larger crystallite sizes than J–MC, indicating a successful digestion and an improvement of the main crystalline structure of cellulose. The X-ray diffraction spectra and TEM images were utilized to establish that the nanocrystals’ size was suitable. The novelty of this work is the synthesis of spherical nanocellulose with better properties, chosen with a rich source of cellulose from an affordable new plant (studied for the first time) by stepwise water-retted extraction, continuing from our previous study.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Cellulose-Based Polymers and Composites, 2nd Edition)
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Open AccessArticle
Hydrophobic Modification of Pectin Aerogels via Chemical Vapor Deposition
by
Eleni Effraimopoulou, Julien Jaxel, Tatiana Budtova and Arnaud Rigacci
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1628; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121628 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Pectin aerogels, with very low density (around 0.1 g cm−3) and high specific surface area (up to 600 m2 g−1), are excellent thermal insulation materials since their thermal conductivity is below that of air at ambient conditions (0.025
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Pectin aerogels, with very low density (around 0.1 g cm−3) and high specific surface area (up to 600 m2 g−1), are excellent thermal insulation materials since their thermal conductivity is below that of air at ambient conditions (0.025 W m−1 K−1). However, due to their intrinsic hydrophilicity, pectin aerogels collapse when in contact with water vapor, losing superinsulating properties. In this work, first, pectin aerogels were made, and the influence of the different process parameters on the materials’ structure and properties were studied. All neat pectin aerogels had a low density (0.04–0.11 g cm−1), high specific surface area (308–567 m2 g−1), and very low thermal conductivity (0.015–0.023 W m−1 K−1). Then, pectin aerogels were hydrophobized via the chemical vapor deposition of methyltrimethoxysilane using different reaction durations (2 to 24 h). The influence of hydrophobization on material properties, especially on thermal conductivity, was recorded by conditioning in a climate chamber (25 °C, 80% relative humidity). Hydrophobization resulted in the increase in thermal conductivity compared to that of neat pectin aerogels. MTMS deposition for 16 h was efficient for hydrophobizing pectin aerogels in moist environment (contact angle 115°) and stabilizing material properties with no fluctuation in thermal conductivity (0.030 W m−1 K−1) and density for the testing period of 8 months.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Bio-Based Polymers: Preparation, Characterization and Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Development and Investigation of an Innovative 3D Biohybrid Based on Collagen and Silk Sericin Enriched with Flavonoids for Potential Wound Healing Applications
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Lea Sleiman, Andreea-Daniela Lazăr (Popa), Mădălina Albu-Kaya, Minodora Maria Marin, Durmuș Alpaslan Kaya, Otilia-Ruxandra Vasile and Sorina Dinescu
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1627; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121627 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
Skin tissue injuries necessitate particular care due to associated complex healing mechanisms. Current investigations in the domain of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are focused on obtaining novel scaffolds adapted as potential delivery systems to restore lost tissue functions and properties. In this
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Skin tissue injuries necessitate particular care due to associated complex healing mechanisms. Current investigations in the domain of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine are focused on obtaining novel scaffolds adapted as potential delivery systems to restore lost tissue functions and properties. In this study, we describe the fabrication and evaluation of a novel 3D scaffold structure based on collagen and silk sericin (CollSS) enriched with microcapsules containing natural compounds, curcumin (C), and/or quercetin (Q). These 3D composites were characterized by FT-IR spectroscopy, water uptake, in vitro collagenase degradation, and SEM microscopy. Furthermore, they were biologically evaluated in terms of biocompatibility, cell adhesion, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties. All tested materials indicated an overall suitable biocompatibility, with the best results obtained for the one containing both flavonoids. This study suggests the cumulative beneficial effect of C and Q, encapsulated in the same composite, as a potential non-invasive therapeutic strategy for skin tissue regeneration in patients suffering from chronic wounds.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications)
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Open AccessArticle
Enhancing Polymer Blend Compatibility with Linear and Complex Star Copolymer Architectures: A Monte Carlo Simulation Study with the Bond Fluctuation Model
by
Juan J. Freire and Costas Vlahos
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1626; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121626 (registering DOI) - 8 Jun 2024
Abstract
A Monte Carlo study of the compatibilization of A/B polymer blends has been performed using the bond fluctuation model. The considered compatibilizers are copolymer molecules composed of A and B blocks. Different types of copolymer structures have been included, namely, linear diblock and
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A Monte Carlo study of the compatibilization of A/B polymer blends has been performed using the bond fluctuation model. The considered compatibilizers are copolymer molecules composed of A and B blocks. Different types of copolymer structures have been included, namely, linear diblock and 4-block alternating copolymers, star block copolymers, miktoarm stars, and zipper stars. Zipper stars are composed of two arms of diblock copolymers arranged in alternate order (AB and BA) from the central unit, along with two homogeneous arms of A and B units. The compatibilization performance has been characterized by analyzing the equilibration of repulsion energy, the simulated scattering intensity obtained with opposite refractive indices for A and B, the profiles along a coordinate axis, the radial distribution functions, and the compatibilizer aggregation numbers. According to the results, linear alternate block copolymers, star block copolymers, and zipper stars exhibit significantly better compatibilization, with zipper stars showing slightly but consistently better performance.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Computational Modeling and Simulations of Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
Performance Evaluation of Out-of-Spec Carbon Prepregs for Upcycling Purposes
by
Sanjeev Rao and Dereck Bastienne
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1625; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121625 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
In view of exploring the possibility of upcycling aerospace scrap, cure characteristics of out-of-spec carbon fiber prepregs are investigated in this study. The cure behavior of the prepreg is examined in the form of the mechanical cure conversion state of the material using
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In view of exploring the possibility of upcycling aerospace scrap, cure characteristics of out-of-spec carbon fiber prepregs are investigated in this study. The cure behavior of the prepreg is examined in the form of the mechanical cure conversion state of the material using a Dynamic Mechanical Analyzer (DMA). Cure kinetics is modeled by comparing the storage modulus at the start of the reaction (E′0) and instantaneously (E′t) during isothermal experiments with those of the fully cured material (E′∞) obtained from dynamic scans. The glass transition temperature Tg and the extent of reaction before gelation are modeled using the DiBenedetto model, where the Tg of each laminate is determined in a DMA, per standard ASTM D7028. The mechanical properties, the extent of cure, and the glass transition temperature of the cured laminates were determined according to industry and international standards. The maximum conversion at temperatures between 100 °C and 140 °C is approximately 80% (±5%). The modeled rate of conversion shows a reasonable match with the experimental data, exhibiting a maximum reaction rate at about 30–40% of the cure conversion. The predicted evolution of the Tg as a function of cure conversion using the DiBenedetto model provides a 94% match with the experimental data. The multi-stage cure cycle based on the models offers shorter cycle times and high-quality laminates. The mechanical test results indicate approximately a 13% and 15% decrease in tensile strength and modulus, respectively, compared to pristine ones. The experimental extent of cure of the cured laminates (95.4%) is in close agreement with that predicted by the model (97%). The porosity in the laminates is estimated to be approximately 2.4%, which is acceptable in several industries.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Waste Recycling and Management II)
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Open AccessArticle
Study on the Application of Fluorinated Polyimide in the Acidic Corrosion Protection of 3-nitro-1,2,4-trizole-5-one (NTO)-Based Explosive Formulations
by
Huanmin Liu, Chongchong She, Jiaming Gao and Kun Chen
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1624; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121624 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) has been widely used as a kind of insensitive single-compound explosive owing to its excellent balance between safety and explosive energy. To reduce its possible acid corrosion and extend its application to insensitive ammunition, acid protection research on NTO-based explosives is
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3-nitro-1,2,4-triazol-5-one (NTO) has been widely used as a kind of insensitive single-compound explosive owing to its excellent balance between safety and explosive energy. To reduce its possible acid corrosion and extend its application to insensitive ammunition, acid protection research on NTO-based explosives is significant. Traditionally, the acid protection effect was evaluated by metal corrosion, which is time-consuming and qualitative. An efficient and quantitative method is desirable for evaluating the acid protection effect and exploring novel protection materials. Herein, a polyimide of 4,4’-(hexafluoroisopropene)diphthalic anhydride (6FDA)/2,2-bis(trifluoromethyl)-4,4-diaminobiphenyl (TFMB) was synthesized by replacing the 4,4’-diaminodiphenyl ether (ODA) monomer with a TFMB monomer to act as an acid-protective coating material for NTO-based explosives. Compared with three other coating materials, polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), polyetherimide (PEI), and copolyimide (P84), the fluorinated polyimide exhibits the best acid protection effect. Moreover, a new method was constructed to obtain the pH time-dependent curve in order to evaluate efficiently the acid protection effect of the polymer materials. By the virtue of molecular dynamic simulation (Materials Studio 2023), the interfacial effects of the coating materials with NTO-based explosives were obtained. The study provides an interpretation of the acid protection effect on the molecular level, suggesting that the higher content of fluorine atoms is beneficial for stabilizing the active hydrogen atom of the NTO by forming intermolecular hydrogen bonds.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Application of Novel Polymer Coatings)
Open AccessArticle
Modeling Analysis of Complex Deformation of Woven Coating Film during the Cyclic Tensile Process
by
Li Cai, Zhengyan Zhang, Deng’an Cai, Guangming Zhou and Xinwei Wang
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1623; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121623 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
It is difficult for the existing Burgers model to accurately depict the off-axis cyclic drawing process of woven coatings. In this paper, the mechanical deformation of woven PVC (polyvinyl chloride)-coated film at different temperatures is investigated. One-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) constitutive models
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It is difficult for the existing Burgers model to accurately depict the off-axis cyclic drawing process of woven coatings. In this paper, the mechanical deformation of woven PVC (polyvinyl chloride)-coated film at different temperatures is investigated. One-dimensional (1D) and two-dimensional (2D) constitutive models were established to characterize cyclic deformation processes. The 1D model is an improved Burgers model. The effects of the time dependence of the viscosity coefficient and the ratio of elastic to viscous deformation are considered simultaneously. The accuracy of the 1D model for predicting the cyclic nonlinear deformation at different temperatures and loading rates is improved. The 2D model is a nonlinear orthotropic model using polynomials. On the basis of the single-objective genetic algorithm, the inverse algorithm is used to obtain the shear polynomial coefficients in the tension phase and the shear modulus in the unloading phase, which circumvents performing the difficult shear test. UMAT subroutines of off-axis stretching and off-axis cyclic stretching are written separately. The intelligent inverse algorithm program consists of a single-objective genetic algorithm program, a finite element parametric modelling program, and a UMAT subroutine. The simulation results are compared with the off-axis cyclic tensile test data to validate the effectiveness and accuracy of the proposed 2D model for the analysis of the woven PVC-coated films in the tension–shear coupling state.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fibre-Reinforced Polymeric Composites)
Open AccessReview
Additive Manufacturing of Continuous Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Composites via Fused Deposition Modelling: A Comprehensive Review
by
Muhammad Azfar Jamal, Owaisur Rahman Shah, Usman Ghafoor, Yumna Qureshi and M. Raheel Bhutta
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1622; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121622 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) has arisen as a transformative technology for manufacturing complex geometries with enhanced mechanical properties, particularly in the realm of continuous fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs). Among various AM techniques, fused deposition modeling (FDM) stands out as a promising method for the
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Additive manufacturing (AM) has arisen as a transformative technology for manufacturing complex geometries with enhanced mechanical properties, particularly in the realm of continuous fiber-reinforced polymer composites (CFRPCs). Among various AM techniques, fused deposition modeling (FDM) stands out as a promising method for the fabrication of CFRPCs due to its versatility, ease of use, flexibility, and cost-effectiveness. Several research papers on the AM of CFRPs via FDM were summarized and therefore this review paper provides a critical examination of the process-printing parameters influencing the AM process, with a focus on their impact on mechanical properties. This review covers details of factors such as fiber orientation, layer thickness, nozzle diameter, fiber volume fraction, printing temperature, and infill design, extracted from the existing literature. Through a visual representation of the process parameters (printing and material) and properties (mechanical, physical, and thermal), this paper aims to separate out the optimal processing parameters that have been inferred from various research studies. Furthermore, this analysis critically evaluates the current state-of-the-art research, highlighting advancements, applications, filament production methods, challenges, and opportunities for further development in this field. In comparison to short fibers, continuous fiber filaments can render better strength; however, delamination issues persist. Various parameters affect the printing process differently, resulting in several limitations that need to be addressed. Signifying the relationship between printing parameters and mechanical properties is vital for optimizing CFRPC fabrication via FDM, enabling the realization of lightweight, high-strength components for various industrial applications.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites)
Open AccessReview
Carbon Recycling of High Value Bioplastics: A Route to a Zero-Waste Future
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Matthew Keith, Martin Koller and Maximilian Lackner
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1621; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121621 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Today, 98% of all plastics are fossil-based and non-biodegradable, and globally, only 9% are recycled. Microplastic and nanoplastic pollution is just beginning to be understood. As the global demand for sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics continues to rise, biobased and biodegradable plastics have
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Today, 98% of all plastics are fossil-based and non-biodegradable, and globally, only 9% are recycled. Microplastic and nanoplastic pollution is just beginning to be understood. As the global demand for sustainable alternatives to conventional plastics continues to rise, biobased and biodegradable plastics have emerged as a promising solution. This review article delves into the pivotal concept of carbon recycling as a pathway towards achieving a zero-waste future through the production and utilization of high-value bioplastics. The review comprehensively explores the current state of bioplastics (biobased and/or biodegradable materials), emphasizing the importance of carbon-neutral and circular approaches in their lifecycle. Today, bioplastics are chiefly used in low-value applications, such as packaging and single-use items. This article sheds light on value-added applications, like longer-lasting components and products, and demanding properties, for which bioplastics are increasingly being deployed. Based on the waste hierarchy paradigm—reduce, reuse, recycle—different use cases and end-of-life scenarios for materials will be described, including technological options for recycling, from mechanical to chemical methods. A special emphasis on common bioplastics—TPS, PLA, PHAs—as well as a discussion of composites, is provided. While it is acknowledged that the current plastics (waste) crisis stems largely from mismanagement, it needs to be stated that a radical solution must come from the core material side, including the intrinsic properties of the polymers and their formulations. The manner in which the cascaded use of bioplastics, labeling, legislation, recycling technologies, and consumer awareness can contribute to a zero-waste future for plastics is the core topics of this article.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Clever Microorganisms in Biotechnology: From Wastes to High-Value Biopolymers)
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Open AccessArticle
Surface Modification of Copper-Based Flakes for Conductive Polymer Composites
by
Mohor Mihelčič, Alen Oseli, Tadej Rojac and Lidija Slemenik Perše
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1620; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121620 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The physical properties as well as thermal and electrical stability of copper particles can be improved by surface protection, which mainly depends on the coating material. Our study was, therefore, focused on the rheological, thermal, mechanical and electrical characterization of polymer composites by
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The physical properties as well as thermal and electrical stability of copper particles can be improved by surface protection, which mainly depends on the coating material. Our study was, therefore, focused on the rheological, thermal, mechanical and electrical characterization of polymer composites by comparing uncoated (Cu), silver-coated (Cu@Ag) and silica-coated (Cu@Si) copper flakes in low-density polyethylene at various volume concentrations (up to 40%). Interactions among particles were investigated by rheological properties, as these indicate network formation (geometrical entanglement), which is important for mechanical reinforcement as well as establishing an electric pathway (electrical percolation). The results showed that geometrical and electrical percolation were the same for Cu and Cu@Si, ~15%, while, surprisingly, Cu@Ag exhibited much lower percolation, ~7.5%, indicating the fusion of the Ag coating material, which also decreased crystal growth (degree of crystallinity). Furthermore, the magnitude of the rheological and mechanical response remained the same for all investigated materials, indicating that the coating materials do not provide any load transfer capabilities. However, they profoundly affect electron transfer, in that, Cu@Ag exhibited superior conductivity (74.4 S/m) compared to Cu (1.7 × 10−4 S/m) and Cu@Si (1.5 × 10−10 S/m). The results obtained are important for the design of advanced polymer composites for various applications, particularly in electronics where enhanced electrical conductivity is desired.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Polymers and Their Composites and Structures: Design, Preparation and Properties)
Open AccessArticle
Influence of the Manufacturing Method (3D Printing and Injection Molding) on Water Absorption and Mechanical and Thermal Properties of Polymer Composites Based on Poly(lactic acid)
by
Paul Forbid Mukoroh, Fathi Gouda, Mikael Skrifvars and Sunil Kumar Ramamoorthy
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1619; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121619 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The manufacturing method influences the properties of the produced components. This work investigates the influence of manufacturing methods, such as fused deposition modeling (3D printing) and injection molding, on the water absorption and mechanical and thermal properties of the specimens produced from neat
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The manufacturing method influences the properties of the produced components. This work investigates the influence of manufacturing methods, such as fused deposition modeling (3D printing) and injection molding, on the water absorption and mechanical and thermal properties of the specimens produced from neat bio-based poly(lactic acid) (PLA) polymer and poly(lactic acid)/wood composites. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) acts as the reference material due to its low water absorption and good functional properties. The printing layer thickness is one of the factors that affects the properties of a 3D-printed specimen. The investigation includes two different layer thicknesses (0.2 mm and 0.3 mm) while maintaining uniform overall thickness of the specimens across two manufacturing methods. 3D-printed specimens absorb significantly higher amounts of water than the injection-molded specimens, and the increase in the layer thickness of the 3D-printed specimens contributes to further increased water absorption. However, the swelling due to water absorption in 3D-printed specimens decreases upon increased layer thickness. The tensile, flexural, and impact properties of all of the specimens decrease after water absorption, while the properties improve upon decreasing the layer thickness. Higher porosity upon increasing the layer thickness is the predominant factor. The results from dynamic mechanical analysis and microscopy validate the outcomes. The results from this experimental study highlight the limitations of additive manufacturing.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Fiber-Based Green Materials)
Open AccessArticle
Biopolymer Compositions Based on Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) and Linear Polyurethanes with Aromatic Rings—Preparation and Properties Evaluation
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Beata Krzykowska, Anna Czerniecka-Kubicka, Anita Białkowska, Mohamed Bakar, Miroslava Kovářová, Vladimir Sedlařík, Dominika Hanusova and Iwona Zarzyka
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1618; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121618 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Polymer biocompositions of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB) and linear polyurethanes (PU) with aromatic rings were produced by melt-blending at different P3HB/PU weight ratios (100/0, 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15). Polyurethanes have been prepared with 4,4′-diphenylmethane diisocyanate and polyethylene glycols with molar masses of 400 g/mol (PU400),
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Polymer biocompositions of poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (P3HB) and linear polyurethanes (PU) with aromatic rings were produced by melt-blending at different P3HB/PU weight ratios (100/0, 95/5, 90/10, and 85/15). Polyurethanes have been prepared with 4,4′-diphenylmethane diisocyanate and polyethylene glycols with molar masses of 400 g/mol (PU400), 1000g/mol (PU1000), and 1500 g/mol (PU1500). The compatibility and morphology of the obtained polymer blends were determined by infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The effect of the polyurethane content in the biocompositions on their thermal stability and mechanical properties was investigated and compared with those of the native P3HB. It was shown that increasing the PU content in P3HB-PU compositions to 10 wt.% leads to an improvement in the mentioned properties. The obtained results demonstrated that the thermal stability and mechanical properties of P3HB were improved, particularly in terms of increasing the degradation temperature, reducing hardness, and increasing impact strength. The best thermal and mechanical properties were shown by the P3HB-PU polymer compositions containing 10 wt.% of polyurethane modifiers, especially PU1000, which was also confirmed by the morphology analysis of these biocompositions. The presence of polyurethanes in the resulting polymer biocomposites decreases their glass transition temperatures, i.e., makes the materials more flexible. The resulting polymer biocompositions have suitable mechanical properties and thermal properties within the processing conditions for the predicted application as biodegradable, short-lived products for agriculture.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biopolymers and Bio-Based Polymer Composites)
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Open AccessArticle
Preparation of Gradient Polyurethane and Its Performance for Flexible Sensors
by
Chuanqi Ning, Depeng Gong, Lili Wu, Wanyu Chen and Chaocan Zhang
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1617; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121617 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
Flexible sensors are prone to the problems of slow recovery rate and large residual strain in practical use. In this paper, a polyurethane functional composite with a gradient change in elastic modulus is proposed as a flexible sensor to meet the recovery rate
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Flexible sensors are prone to the problems of slow recovery rate and large residual strain in practical use. In this paper, a polyurethane functional composite with a gradient change in elastic modulus is proposed as a flexible sensor to meet the recovery rate and residual strain without affecting the motion. Different hard and soft segment ratios are used to synthesize a gradient polyurethane structure. The conductive percolation threshold was obtained between 45 wt% and 50 wt% of flake silver powder. Both gradient polyurethane and gradient polyurethane composites demonstrated that gradient materials can increase the recovery rate and reduce residual strain. The gradient polyurethane composites had a tensile strength of 3.26 MPa, an elastic modulus of 2.58 MPa, an elongation at break of 245%, a sensitivity coefficient of 1.20 at 0–25% deformation, a sensitivity coefficient of 11.38 at 25–75% deformation, a rate of recovery of 1.95 s at a time, and a resistance to fatigue (over 1000 cycles at a fixed strain of 20% showed a stable electrical response). The sensing performance under different cyclic strain frequencies was also investigated. The process has practical applications in the field of wearable skin motion and health monitoring.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue State of the Art and Perspectives of Polymer Science and Technology in China)
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Open AccessArticle
Development of Halloysite Nanotube-Infused Thermoset Soybean Bio-Resin for Advanced Medical Packaging
by
Shahab Saedi, Abdus Sobhan, Magdalene Hoff, Siqun Wang and Kasiviswanathan Muthukumarappan
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1616; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121616 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The development of eco-friendly, mechanically stable, and biocompatible materials for medical packaging has gained significant attention in recent years. Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have emerged as a promising nanomaterial due to their unique tubular structure, high aspect ratio, and biocompatibility. We aim to develop
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The development of eco-friendly, mechanically stable, and biocompatible materials for medical packaging has gained significant attention in recent years. Halloysite nanotubes (HNTs) have emerged as a promising nanomaterial due to their unique tubular structure, high aspect ratio, and biocompatibility. We aim to develop a novel soybean oil-based thermoset bio-resin incorporating HNTs and to characterize its physical and functional properties for medical packaging. Soybean oil was epoxidized using an eco-friendly method and used as a precursor for preparing the thermoset resin (ESOR). Different amounts of HNTs (0.25, 0.50, and 1.0 wt.%) were used to prepare the ESOR/HNTs blends. Various characteristics such as transparency, tensile strength, thermal resistance, and water absorption were investigated. While incorporating HNTs improved the tensile strength and thermal properties of the ESOR, it noticeably reduced its transparency at the 1.0 wt.% level. Therefore, HNTs were modified using sodium hydroxide and (3-Aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) and ESOR/HNTs blends were made using 1.0 wt.% of modified HNTs. It was shown that modifying HNTs using NaOH improved the transparency and mechanical properties of prepared blends compared to those with the same amount of unmodified HNTs. However, modifying using (3-Aminopropyl) triethoxysilane (APTES) decreased the transparency but improved the water absorption of prepared resins. This study provides valuable insights into the design of HNT-based ESOR blends as a sustainable material for medical packaging, contributing to the advancement of eco-friendly packaging solutions in the healthcare industry.
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(This article belongs to the Section Biomacromolecules, Biobased and Biodegradable Polymers)
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Open AccessArticle
Magnesium Transfer between Atomic Force Microscopy Probes and Metal Electrodes in Aqueous Alginate Electrolytes
by
Walter J. Legerstee, Lindah Kiriinya, Mark Kwakernaak and Erik M. Kelder
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1615; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121615 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The upcoming energy transition requires not only renewable energy sources but also novel electricity storage systems such as batteries. Despite Li-ion batteries being the main storage systems, other batteries have been proposed to fulfil the requirements on safety, costs, and resource availability. Moving
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The upcoming energy transition requires not only renewable energy sources but also novel electricity storage systems such as batteries. Despite Li-ion batteries being the main storage systems, other batteries have been proposed to fulfil the requirements on safety, costs, and resource availability. Moving away from lithium, materials such as sodium, magnesium, zinc, and calcium are being considered. Water-based electrolytes are known for their improved safety, environmentally friendliness, and affordability. The key, however, is how to utilize the negative metal electrode, as using water-based electrolytes with these metals becomes an issue with respect to oxidation and/or dendrite formation. This work studied magnesium, where we aimed to determine if it can be electrochemically deposited in aqueous solutions with alginate-based additives to protect the magnesium. In order to do so, atomic force microscopy was used to research the morphological structure of magnesium deposition at the local scale by using a probe—the tip of a cantilever—as the active electrode, during charging and discharging. The second goal of using the AFM probe technology for magnesium deposition and stripping was an extension of our previous study in which we investigated, for lithium, whether it is possible to measure ion current and perform nonfaradaic impedance measurements at the local scale. The work presented here shows that this is possible in a relatively simple way because, with magnesium, no dendrite formation occurs, which hinders the stripping process.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polysaccharide-Based Materials: Developments and Properties)
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Development and Characterization of the Shale Stratum Well Wall Stabilized with Nanosomal Sealing Agent
by
Daqi Li, Shuyang Gao, Zhichuan Tang, Huimei Wu and Yayun Zhang
Polymers 2024, 16(12), 1614; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16121614 - 7 Jun 2024
Abstract
The development of micro cracks in shale formations can easily lead to wellbore instability caused by liquid phase invasion. In order to effectively seal the shale micropores, the surface treatment of nano-SiO2 particles was developed using the silicane coupling agent A-1891. Then,
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The development of micro cracks in shale formations can easily lead to wellbore instability caused by liquid phase invasion. In order to effectively seal the shale micropores, the surface treatment of nano-SiO2 particles was developed using the silicane coupling agent A-1891. Then, the temperature-sensitive polypenic acrylamide polymer was modified onto the surface of the nanoprocal particle through reaction to obtain the nanosomal blocking agent ASN. The infrared spectrum shows that there are chemical bonds between the generated polymer chains, rather than simple physical composites, indicating the successful synthesis of the temperature-responsive nanosealing agent ASN. The particle size analysis showed that the synthesized nanoparticles in ASN have a uniform particle size distribution and display no agglomeration phenomenon. Applying ASN as a sealing agent in drilling fluid effectively fills the nanoscale micropores and microcracks in shale, making shale denser and significantly improving the wellbore stability of shale formations. In addition, it has good temperature resistance, can adapt to reservoirs at different temperatures, is non-toxic and environmentally friendly, and has good prospects for stable applications in shale formation wellbore.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Polymer Composites in Oil Industry)
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Open AccessReview
Eco-Friendly and High-Performance Bio-Polyurethane Adhesives from Vegetable Oils: A Review
by
Sena Maulana, Eko Setio Wibowo, Efri Mardawati, Apri Heri Iswanto, Antonios Papadopoulos and Muhammad Adly Rahandi Lubis
Polymers 2024, 16(11), 1613; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16111613 - 6 Jun 2024
Abstract
Current petrochemical-based adhesives adversely affect the environment through substantial volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions during production, contributing to air pollution and climate change. In contrast, vegetable oils extracted from bio-resources provide a compelling alternative owing to their renewability, abundance, and compatibility with adhesive
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Current petrochemical-based adhesives adversely affect the environment through substantial volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions during production, contributing to air pollution and climate change. In contrast, vegetable oils extracted from bio-resources provide a compelling alternative owing to their renewability, abundance, and compatibility with adhesive formulation chemistry. This review aimed to critically examine and synthesize the existing scholarly literature on environmentally friendly, sustainable, and high-performance polyurethane adhesives (PUAs) developed from vegetable oils. The use of PUAs derived from vegetable oils promises to provide a long-term replacement while simultaneously maintaining or improving adhesive properties. This quality renders these adhesives appropriate for widespread use in various sectors, including construction, automotive manufacturing, packaging, textile, and footwear industries. This review intended to perform a comprehensive assessment and integration of the existing research, thereby identifying the raw materials, strengths, weaknesses, and gaps in knowledge concerning vegetable oil-based PUAs. In doing so, it responded to these gaps and proposes potential avenues for future research. Therefore, this review accomplishes more than merely evaluating the existing research; it fosters the advancement of greener PUA technologies by identifying areas for improvement and innovation towards more sustainable industrial practices by showcasing vegetable oil-based PUAs as viable, high-performance alternatives to their petroleum-based counterparts.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Valorization of Biopolymer from Renewable Biomass)
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