1. Introduction
Farmed salmon constitutes Canada’s third-largest seafood export by value, accounting for over 70% of the total production volume and more than 80% of the overall farm-gate value. While salmon cultivation occurs in Atlantic Canada, the primary hub of the industry is in British Columbia, the largest agri-food export region. Salmon aquaculture in British Columbia commenced in the late 1970s, and by 2021, the industry produced 84,171 metric tonnes with an economic value of CAD 692,381,000. The salmon farming sector has played a pivotal role in managing freshwater and marine resources, contributing significantly to the economic and social well-being of coastal communities [
1].
Salmon consumption in Canada exhibits a remarkable degree of prevalence, as shown by empirical studies indicating that approximately 79% of the population integrate this fish into their dietary habits, with 10% consuming salmon weekly [
2]. These dietary habits are likely influenced by factors such as sustainable development, economic considerations, and cultural habits. Primarily, a survey revealed strong support for sustainable practices in Canadian salmon farming. Over half (55%) of Canadians expressed a purchase intent for farmed salmon raised on environmentally friendly and nutritious diets, and 54% believed that aquaculture is a sustainable method for salmon harvesting in Canada [
2]. These findings suggest broad public approval for the sustainability of ocean farm production. Moreover, economic considerations such as employment, income, and the potential for severe declines or loss of economic benefits from harvest are taken into account by Canadians [
3]. Beyond these factors, salmon consumption plays a crucial role in fostering cultural ties among First Nations communities. Traditional practices of food-sharing and communal feasting centered around salmon serve to bolster cultural identity, social connectedness, and cultural continuity—all of which are positively associated with the health and well-being of these communities [
4].
Research on salmon has consistently been a focal point in the domain of consumer perception analysis. Osmond et al. conducted an exploratory investigation into Canadian consumer perceptions and behaviors regarding salmon [
2]. Zheng et al. employed a Random Parameters Logit (RRL) model to scrutinize heterogeneity in preferences, integrating perceptions of genetically modified (GM) farmed salmon [
5]. Grundvåg Ottesen provided valuable insights into Norwegian consumer perceptions of salmon [
6], while Gaedeke explored perceptions regarding both wild-caught and farmed salmon [
7]. Numerous studies have delved into the influence of factors on consumer perceptions and behavior. Qin and Brown investigated the impact of process and product-related information [
8], Budhathoki et al. delved into the place of purchase and provision of production method [
9], Nickoloff et al. explored the effects of conflicting health information [
10], Onozaka et al. focused on geographic origin coupled with sustainable measures [
11], Whitmarsh and Palmieri examined environmental preferences [
12], and Muñoz-Colmenero et al. identified economic reasons favoring wild-caught over farmed products as primary drivers [
13]. Moreover, research has explored the intricate relationship between perception and behavior. Onozaka et al. employed Latent Class Analysis (LCA) embedded in Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) to study the impact of perceptions of healthiness, value for money, and convenience on salmon consumption frequencies [
14]. Zheng et al. utilized an ordered logit model to investigate perceptions of consumption attributes (clean, tasty, nutritious) and their influence on purchase habits of Alaskan salmon [
15]. Suzuki et al. employed SEM to explore the post-disaster consumer perception effect on seafood purchase intent [
16]. Zheng et al. applied the RPL model to assess Chinese consumers’ willingness to pay, incorporating perceptions of the production environment (wild-caught and farm-raised) and food safety attributes [
17]. Alfnes et al. designed 20 choice scenarios with posted prices to investigate consumers’ willingness to pay for the color of salmon using a mixed logit model [
18]. Myrland et al. applied the Fishbein–Ajzen approach to study consumer perception and the frequency of Norwegian salmon consumption [
19]. Despite the limitations observed in these studies, such as the restriction of analytical variables to singular questions in their surveys, resulting in potential subconscious biases among respondents, their significance for the advancement of the Canadian salmon sector persists. For instance, initiatives like the enactment of the Fisheries Act and the management of farm salmon licenses have been guided by imperatives of sustainable practices, economic considerations, consumer motivations (such as price, origin, attributes, and consumption frequencies), and cultural habits.
However, in early 2023, the Canadian government chose not to renew licenses for 15 salmon farms around British Columbia’s Discovery Islands, following a prior decrease in license issuances by 22 in 2022 [
20]. This policy shift within the salmon farming industry resulted in an approximate 25% reduction in the total number of salmon farms in British Columbia [
21]. This governmental intervention carries noteworthy implications. Primarily, it is poised to create a scarcity of Canadian salmon, leading to a 13% reduction in exports and a decline in Canada’s market share within the US market. Furthermore, this regulatory measure is anticipated to trigger a 12.7% increase in the retail price of Canadian salmon [
21], potentially prompting Canadian consumers to substitute domestically farmed salmon with imports or other seafood. Considering that salmon holds the first position in Canada’s seafood choices [
22], such a shift may adversely impact Canadians’ consumption satisfaction. Additionally, the subsequent exacerbation of potential adverse impacts leads to changes in employment and income levels in Canadian coastal and Indigenous communities, many of which have faced economic challenges stemming from declines in resource-based industries [
23]. Specifically, the recent shutdown order is estimated to result in the loss of over 300 jobs for Mowi workers [
24].
Salmon has also been intrinsically linked to Indigenous livelihood and culture for centuries. Notably, the historical entwinement of Alaska Natives with salmon extends beyond 10,000 years [
25]. However, recent decades have borne witness to a decline in wild salmon populations attributed to multifaceted factors, including climate change, overfishing, and diseases [
26]. While the Fisheries Act prioritizes Indigenous ceremonial and subsistence fishing, the loss of cultural diversity has not received the same attention as the loss of biological diversity [
27]. Research conducted by Carothers et al. highlighted the impending threats to the sustainability of six Sugpiaq villages in the Kodiak Archipelago due to lost fisheries access and the cumulative impacts of restricted access management [
25]. Similarly, Steel et al. underscored the mounting challenges faced by Haíłzaqv Nation fishers in accessing salmon within their traditional territories due to escalating fuel costs and boat maintenance fees [
28].
The controversy surrounding the decrease in the issuance of salmon farm licenses in British Columbia reflects either the potential neglect of critical factors in previous research within the Canadian salmon sector or the presence of unresolved limitations in existing studies, both of which exert ongoing influence on the sustainability and economic management policies of the current government. Building upon insights derived from previous research, this study innovatively addresses this gap by integrating Indigenous rights into the current analysis of consumer perceptions and behaviors, alongside considerations of sustainability practices, socio-economic impacts, and consumer motivations. Our research objectives aim to fit three consumer perceptions—environmental sustainability, economic considerations, and Indigenous rights—and to evaluate their associations, alongside the perception of a price increase, socio-demographics, and consumer motivation factors (with specific emphasis on “the perceived importance of price” and “the perceived importance of origin”), with each purchasing behavior related to Canadian salmon products. Moreover, the incorporation of methodologies such as the Graded Response Model (GRM) and Cumulative Link Models (CLM) [
29] adds another innovative dimension to this study. The GRM is applied to capture latent traits underlying perceptions within each sub-domain, while Cumulative Link Models are employed to conduct analyses of consumer perceptions and behaviors. A nationwide online survey was also conducted.
This study is strategically positioned to provide valuable insights for both policymakers and stakeholders within the salmon industry. By leveraging the findings of this research, policymakers can effectively navigate the complex challenge of balancing environmental sustainability with Indigenous rights in the formulation of salmon farm licensing policies. This sophisticated approach could involve the development of policies that endorse a sustainable number of licenses for farmed salmon production, not only catering to established consumer demand but also incorporating culturally sustainable measures to support the livelihoods and employment opportunities of Indigenous communities, including Indigenous-led programs. Given its significance as an economic driver for Canadian aquaculture and seafood production [
23], this balanced approach is crucial for bolstering the salmon sector’s contribution to Canada’s Blue Economy Strategy. Stakeholders, in turn, will gain a comprehensive understanding of purchasing behaviors aligned with consumer perceptions, enabling informed adjustments to enhance market strategies accordingly.
The rest of the study is organized as follows.
Section 2 explains the theoretical framework.
Section 3 describes data collection procedures, descriptive data analysis, and the statistical models used in the research. In
Section 4, a three-step procedure is employed to fit three perceptions, examining their correlations with socio-demographic variables and consumer motivations, followed by assessing the associations with seven purchasing behaviors, respectively, through CLM.
Section 5 initiates a discussion on the findings, comparisons, limitations, and future work. Finally,
Section 6 concludes the study.
5. Discussion
Table 1 and
Table 2 present descriptive statistics derived from our survey data. Notably, responses to the Likert scale questions (Q2 to Q35) predominantly indicate neutrality or agreement, with over 76% of choices falling into these categories (neutral, agree, and strongly agree). Q4 (enjoyment of eating salmon regularly) shows a slight deviation, with approximately 69% falling into those categories.
Figure 1 illustrates the flow chart.
Figure 2,
Figure 3 and
Figure 4 depict the process of dimensionality tests for the perceptions of environmental sustainability, economic considerations, and Indigenous rights, respectively. Each figure confirms a unidimensional characteristic in the related sub-domain, facilitating subsequent OLS or CLM analyses.
Figure 5,
Figure 6 and
Figure 7 illustrate the graded response functions for each perception.
Table 3 presents the results of reliability tests conducted on the entire survey and its three sub-domains, with both estimated values and 95% confidence intervals above the threshold of 0.7, indicating high consistency.
Table 4 provides descriptive statistics of MAP-estimated latent traits.
In the assessment of the four perceptions, as demonstrated in
Table 5, certain patterns emerge. Regarding environmental sustainability, statistically significant negative associations are observed with dietary preferences, gender, age, education, and geographic location, while positive correlations are found with household size, residential zones, and the perceived importance of price and origin. Similarly, economic considerations reflect a parallel pattern, displaying comparable negative associations with the aforementioned factors, while demonstrating positive associations with household size, geographic location, residential zones, and the perceived importance of price and origin. In the context of Indigenous rights, analogous negative associations are observed with environmental sustainability, alongside positive associations with gender, geographic location, residential zones, and the perceived importance of price and origin. Concerning the perception of a price increase, negative associations are apparent with dietary preferences, whereas positive correlations are established with respondents’ purchase history and the perceived importance of price and origin.
In the analysis of consumer purchasing behaviors highlighted in
Table 6, particularly in the choice between fresh and frozen salmon (Q5), this study reveals negative effects associated with specific dietary preferences and female gender. Conversely, positive determinants include economic considerations, a price increase, Quebec residence, urban residence, purchase history, and the perceived importance of origin. Concerning the choice of Canadian-sourced salmon (Q7), negative associations are linked to certain dietary preferences and income, while positive associations are observed in economic considerations, a price increase, age, purchase history, and the perceived importance of origin. Negative associations with the selection of Canadian farm-raised salmon over those from another country (Q8) involve specific dietary preferences and urban residence, while positive associations are observed including environmental sustainability, economic considerations, a price increase, age, higher income, and the perceived importance of origin. Notably, the deduction drawn from these two purchasing behaviors (Q7 and Q8) implies that Canadians demonstrate a preference for Canadian-sourced farmed salmon compared to products from other countries, as shown by the observed positive significant association of the perceived importance of origin. Opting for Canadian farm-raised over foreign wild salmon (Q9) is positively associated with environmental sustainability, economic considerations, Indigenous rights, and education. Negative associations with supporting Indigenous communities (Q11) stem from considerations of environmental sustainability, lower education, and specific dietary preferences, while positive association is observed in the perceptions of Indigenous rights. Purchasing from farms supporting Indigenous communities (Q17) incurs negative correlations with economic considerations and age, while a positive association is observed with perceptions of Indigenous rights. Lastly, the willingness to pay more for sustainably certified salmon (Q21) is negatively associated with marital status, education, perceived importance of price, and a price increase. Positive inclinations toward such behavior are associated with environmental sustainability, perceptions of Indigenous rights, specific dietary preferences, female gender, higher income, urban residence, and the perceived importance of origin. The quantitative impacts of perceptions of environmental sustainability, economic considerations, Indigenous rights, and a price increase on consumer purchasing behaviors have been systematically calculated.
Comparisons with previous references pose challenges due to differences in the study objects and chosen variables. Nonetheless, some similar research exists. For instance, in the work by Zheng et al. [
17], they utilize an index called the consequentiality script to compare two groups. Within the consequential treatment, agreements with Alaska origin and Alaska wild-caught, household size, and income are positively associated with the behavior of willingness to pay for wild-caught salmon, which is similar to our results. Interestingly, our study also finds a positive association between willingness to pay more for labeled salmon (Q21) and urban residence. However, this variable was not observed in Zheng et al.’s study [
17], which might be due to their data being collected from three top-tier cities in China.
The advantage of our proposed method (CLM) is that the Likert scale outcome shall be directly regressed with sub-scale factors and socio-demographic covariates such that the normality assumption for outcomes is no longer required compared with other methods such as SEM. The CLM results can be used not only for interpretation but also for direct prediction of Likert scale outcomes. Moreover, CLM is flexible in the sense that various link functions can be selected depending on goodness-of-fit purposes or other rationale, for example, a probit link function can be used if the Likert scale outcome is acknowledged to be generated by a normal latent variable (in our settings, the use of logit link means that the Likert scale outcome is categorized based on a logistic distributed latent variable). However, the limitation is that the current version of CLM cannot accommodate potential structural equation relationships. To address this limitation, certain maximization methods of numerical approximation of likelihood function involving integrals of latent variables, for example, the EM algorithm, are required in the future.
This study is not exempt from certain limitations. First, the recruitment of participants through convenience sampling may still introduce selection bias, as individuals who perceive an increase in the price of salmon might be more inclined to participate with the anticipation of potential policies addressing the rising prices. Second, the formulation of survey questions may still carry the potential for subconscious bias. For instance, the wording of Question 34, “The price of salmon and other fish products has increased” may yield different responses compared to a counterpart statement such as “The price of salmon and other fish products has NOT increased”. The subtle alteration in phrasing could influence participant responses and introduce unintended biases into the data collection process.
Other contributions may further enrich the scope of this study. For instance, Głu-chowski et al. [
36] elucidate how the perception of sensory quality, including sensory profile and consumer liking, correlates with consumer purchasing behaviors regarding salmon. In the future, by incorporating the sensory quality of Canadian salmon into our study framework, we may gain a more comprehensive understanding of these purchasing behaviors.
6. Conclusions
Based on the results of this study, several mathematical, managerial, and policy implications can be drawn, highlighting the significance of understanding perceptions related to environmental sustainability, economic considerations, Indigenous rights, and price increases in association with consumer purchasing behaviors.
From a mathematical perspective, this study contributes significantly to the existing body of knowledge by incorporating the perception of Indigenous rights. The identification of both positive and negative associations between perceptions and purchasing behaviors provides valuable insights into the complexity of consumer decision-making, highlighting the imperative for a nuanced understanding of these dynamics. Specifically, economic considerations, price increase, and origin importance demonstrate positive associations with the selection of fresh salmon (Q5) and the purchase of Canadian-sourced salmon (Q7). Furthermore, environmental sustainability, economic considerations, price increase, and origin importance are positively correlated with the purchase of Canadian farm salmon over imports (Q8). Although Indigenous rights exhibit positive associations with Indigenous-related behaviors (Q11) and (Q17), they are also positively associated with the selection of Canadian farm salmon over wild imports (Q9), alongside positive relationships with environmental sustainability and economic considerations. Q11 also reveals a negative association between environmental sustainability in salmon farming and Indigenous rights, underscoring the need for stakeholders to enhance sustainability practices to better serve Indigenous rights. A similar trend is observed in Q17. Intriguingly, in the willingness to pay more (Q21), environmental sustainability, Indigenous rights, price increases, and origin and price importance all contribute positively. From Q9 and Q21, it is evident that the perception of Indigenous rights is associated with purchase behavior, a facet not extensively explored in previous research. Moreover, a range of methodologies is employed in this study. Parallel analysis is utilized for dimensionality testing in each sub-domain, while the GRM and MAP techniques are applied to fit the targeted perceptions. Given the skewness observed in the behavioral variables, CLM is selected to analyze the associations between perceptions and purchase behaviors.
On a managerial level, the findings offer practical implications for businesses and marketers seeking to align their strategies with consumer preferences and values. By recognizing the significance of environmental sustainability, economic considerations, Indigenous rights, and price sensitivity, coupled with consumer motivation of origin in shaping purchasing behaviors, businesses can tailor their product offerings, marketing messages, and pricing strategies to resonate with consumers’ values and priorities. Illustratively, the perceptive recognition of Canadians’ preference for domestically sourced salmon and their inclination to choose Canadian farm-raised salmon over that of other countries broadens the scope of business opportunities within the realm of marketing. Additionally, understanding the differential impact of these perceptions across demographic segments enables firms to develop targeted marketing campaigns and product innovations that appeal to specific consumer segments, thereby enhancing competitiveness and market positioning.
From a policy standpoint, the results of this study underscore the importance of implementing regulatory frameworks and initiatives that promote sustainability, protect Indigenous rights, and address socio-economic disparities. Policies aimed at raising consumer awareness, promoting sustainable consumption practices, and ensuring transparency in supply chains can play a crucial role in influencing consumer behaviors and fostering a culture of responsible consumption. Furthermore, efforts to support Indigenous communities and promote fair trade practices can contribute to social equity and environmental stewardship, aligning with broader policy objectives related to sustainable development and social justice.
In conclusion, this study offers valuable insights into the complex interplay between perceptions and purchasing behaviors, highlighting the mathematical, managerial, and policy implications for understanding and influencing consumer decision-making processes. By addressing the underlying factors driving consumer preferences and values, businesses, policymakers, and stakeholders can work toward fostering more sustainable and ethical consumption patterns, thereby contributing to broader societal and environmental goals.