Journal Description
Processes
Processes
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on processes/systems in chemistry, biology, material, energy, environment, food, pharmaceutical, manufacturing, automation control, catalysis, separation, particle and allied engineering fields published monthly online by MDPI. The Systems and Control Division of the Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering (CSChE S&C Division) and the Brazilian Association of Chemical Engineering (ABEQ) are affiliated with Processes and their members receive discounts on the article processing charges. Please visit Society Collaborations for more details.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, Inspec, AGRIS, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q2 (Engineering, Chemical) / CiteScore - Q2 (Chemical Engineering (miscellaneous))
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 13.7 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
Impact Factor:
3.5 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.4 (2022)
Latest Articles
Thermal Stress Mechanism of Thermochemical Reactor of 5 kW Solar Simulator with Temperature Distribution as the Load Condition
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1016; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051016 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
In this paper, a solar thermochemical reactor is designed based on a 5 kW non-coaxial concentrating solar simulator, and a mathematical model is established for thermal calculations. The calculated temperature distribution is used as a load condition for thermal stress analyses. The model
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In this paper, a solar thermochemical reactor is designed based on a 5 kW non-coaxial concentrating solar simulator, and a mathematical model is established for thermal calculations. The calculated temperature distribution is used as a load condition for thermal stress analyses. The model is used to study the influence of the solar simulator power, solar reactor inner wall material’s emissivity, working pressure, gas inlet velocity, and thermocouple opening diameter on the thermal stress of the solar reactor. The results show that thermal stress increases with the increase in solar simulator power and the emissivity of the inner wall material in the solar reactor. The inlet velocity and working pressure have little effect on the thermal stress of the reactor and cannot prevent damage to the reactor. In the case of maintaining the diameter of the thermocouple at the front end of the reactor, increasing the diameter of the thermocouple inside the reactor leads to an increase in thermal stress around the reactor. Meanwhile, using a finer thermocouple can reduce the thermal stress inside the reactor and extend its service life, which will provide a foundation for designing practical industrial applications in the future.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Plateau-Adapted Single-Pump, Single-Bed Vacuum Pressure Swing Adsorption Oxygen Generation Process Simulation and Optimization
by
Yingying Zhang, Yanbin Li, Zhenxing Song, Hongyun Sun, Bolun Wen, Junming Su, Jun Ma and Yanjun Zhang
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051015 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
To enhance the oxygen guarantee capacity in high altitude areas and address the challenges of traditional pressure swing adsorption oxygen generation fixed equipment with large volume and multiple device modules, a novel single-reversible-pump single-bed vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) oxygen generation process was
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To enhance the oxygen guarantee capacity in high altitude areas and address the challenges of traditional pressure swing adsorption oxygen generation fixed equipment with large volume and multiple device modules, a novel single-reversible-pump single-bed vacuum pressure swing adsorption (VPSA) oxygen generation process was proposed and simulated. This study investigated the effects of purge on oxygen productivity, purity, recovery, and energy consumption, determining that the optimum ratio of total oxygen in the purge gas to the total oxygen in the feed gas (P/F) was 0.176. A set of principle prototypes was developed and validated in plains. The process performance was then simulated and studied at altitudes of 3000 m, 4000 m, and 5000 m. Finally, the optimization was carried out by adjusting the product flow rate and feed flow rate, revealing that the best performance can be achieved when the oxygen purity exceeded 90% with lower energy consumption or larger productivity than the optimization goal. This study serves as a valuable reference for the optimization of the VPSA oxygen generation process in a plateau environment.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic New Results on Mathematical Methods–Models and Their Applications to Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Performance Improvement of an Electric Vehicle Charging Station Using Brain Emotional Learning-Based Intelligent Control
by
Sherif A. Zaid, Hani Albalawi, Aadel M. Alatwi and Atef Elemary
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1014; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051014 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Electric vehicle (EV) charging facilities are essential to their development and deployment. These days, autonomous microgrids that use renewable energy resources to energize charging stations for electric vehicles alleviate pressure on the public electricity grid. Nevertheless, controlling and managing such charging stations’ energy
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Electric vehicle (EV) charging facilities are essential to their development and deployment. These days, autonomous microgrids that use renewable energy resources to energize charging stations for electric vehicles alleviate pressure on the public electricity grid. Nevertheless, controlling and managing such charging stations’ energy is difficult due to the nonlinearity and irregular character of renewable energy sources. The current research recommends using a Brain Emotional Learning Intelligent Control (BELBIC) controller to enhance an autonomous EV charging station’s performance and power management. The charging station uses a battery to store energy and is primarily powered by photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. The principles of BELBIC are dependent on emotional cues and sensory inputs, and they are based on an emotion processing system in the brain. Noise and parameter variations do not affect this kind of controller. In this study, the performance of a conventional proportional–integral (PI) controller and the suggested BELBIC controller is evaluated for variations in solar insolation. The various parts of an EV charging station are simulated and modelled by the MATLAB/Simulink framework. The findings show that, in comparison to the conventional PI controller, the suggested BELBIC controller greatly enhances the transient responsiveness of the EV charging station’s performance. The EV keeps charging while the storage battery perfectly saves and keeps steady variations in PV power, even in the face of any PV insolation disturbances. The suggested system’s simulation results are provided and scrutinized to confirm the concept’s suitability. The findings validate the robustness of the suggested BELBIC control versus parameter variations.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue AC and DC Power Grids System Technologies: Analysis, Control and Practical Applications)
Open AccessArticle
Propagation Mechanism and Suppression Strategy of DC Faults in AC/DC Hybrid Microgrid
by
Chun Xiao, Yulu Ren, Qiong Cao, Ruifen Cheng and Lei Wang
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051013 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Due to their efficient renewable energy consumption performance, AC/DC hybrid microgrids have become an important development form for future power grids. However, the fault response will be more complex due to the interconnected structure of AC/DC hybrid microgrids, which may have a serious
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Due to their efficient renewable energy consumption performance, AC/DC hybrid microgrids have become an important development form for future power grids. However, the fault response will be more complex due to the interconnected structure of AC/DC hybrid microgrids, which may have a serious influence on the safe operation of the system. Based on an AC/DC hybrid microgrid with an integrated bidirectional power converter, research on the interaction impact of faults was carried out with the purpose of enhancing the safe operation capability of the microgrid. The typical fault types of the DC sub-grid were selected to analyze the transient processes of fault circuits. Then, AC current expressions under the consideration of system interconnection structure were derived and, on this basis, we obtained the response results of non-fault subnets under the fault process, in order to reveal the mechanism of DC fault propagation. Subsequently, a current limitation control strategy based on virtual impedance control is proposed to address the rapid increase in the DC fault current. On the basis of constant DC voltage control in AC/DC hybrid microgrids, a virtual impedance control link was added. The proposed control strategy only needs to activate the control based on the change rate of the DC current, without additional fault detection systems. During normal operations, virtual impedance has a relatively small impact on the steady-state characteristics of the system. In the case of a fault, the virtual impedance resistance value is automatically adjusted to limit the change rate and amplitude of the fault current. Finally, a DC fault model of the AC/DC hybrid microgrid was built on the RTDS platform. The simulation and experimental results show that the control strategy proposed in this paper can reduce the instantaneous change rate of the fault state current from 19.1 kA/s to 2.73 kA/s, and the error between the calculated results of equivalent modeling and simulation results was within 5%. The obtained results verify the accuracy of the mathematical equivalent model and the effectiveness of the proposed current limitation control strategy.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Solid–Liquid Two-Phase Flowmeter Flow-Passage Wall Erosion Evolution Characteristics and Calibration of Measurement Accuracy
by
Wei Han, Lumin Yan, Rennian Li, Jing Zhang, Xiang Yang, Lei Ji and Yan Qiang
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051012 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Solid–liquid two-phase flowmeters are widely used in critical sectors, such as petrochemicals, energy, manufacturing, the environment, and various other fields. They are indispensable devices for measuring flow. Currently, research has primarily focused on gas–liquid two-phase flow within the flowmeter, giving limited attention to
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Solid–liquid two-phase flowmeters are widely used in critical sectors, such as petrochemicals, energy, manufacturing, the environment, and various other fields. They are indispensable devices for measuring flow. Currently, research has primarily focused on gas–liquid two-phase flow within the flowmeter, giving limited attention to the impact of solid phases. In practical applications, crude oil frequently contains solid particles and other impurities, leading to equipment deformation and a subsequent reduction in measuring accuracy. This paper investigates how particle dynamic parameters affect the erosion evolution characteristics of flowmeters operating in solid–liquid two-phase conditions, employing the dynamic boundary erosion prediction method. The results indicate that the erosion range and peak erosion position on the overcurrent wall of the solid–liquid two-phase flowmeter vary with different particle dynamic parameters. Erosion mainly occurs at the contraction section of the solid–liquid two-phase flowmeter. When the particle inflow velocity increases, the erosion range shows no significant change, but the peak erosion position shifts to the right, primarily due to the evolution of the erosion process. With an increase in particle diameter, the erosion range expands along the inlet direction due to turbulent diffusion, as particles with lower kinetic energy exhibit better followability. There is no significant change in the erosion range and peak erosion position with an increase in particle volume fraction and particle sphericity. With a particle inflow velocity of 8.4 m/s, the maximum erosion depth reaches 750 μm. In contrast, at a particle sphericity of 0.58, the minimum erosion depth is 251 μm. Furthermore, a particle volume fraction of 0.5 results in a maximum flow coefficient increase of 1.99 × 10−3.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research on Oil and Gas Equipment and Technology)
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Open AccessReview
Use of Non-Chlorine Sanitizers in Improving Quality and Safety of Marketed Fresh Salad Vegetables
by
Sharmin Zaman, Ashfaq Aziz, Md. Abubakkar Siddique, Md. Abdul Khaleque and Md. Latiful Bari
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051011 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
The safety of vegetable food is compromised by various factors, including the inefficient or excessive use of sanitizers. Instances of individuals falling ill after consuming raw vegetables have been reported, with outbreaks of diseases caused by pathogens on fresh vegetables becoming increasingly prevalent
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The safety of vegetable food is compromised by various factors, including the inefficient or excessive use of sanitizers. Instances of individuals falling ill after consuming raw vegetables have been reported, with outbreaks of diseases caused by pathogens on fresh vegetables becoming increasingly prevalent globally, attracting significant media coverage and impacting the economic viability of vegetable cultivation. Measures to enhance food safety in postharvest horticultural produce involve controlling microbial proliferation and minimizing cross-contamination. Sanitizers were utilized in the food safety arsenal for a variety of purposes, including pathogen elimination and microbe reduction, hand, tool, and vegetable contact surface cleaning, and produce shelf-life extension. Choosing an appropriate sanitizer for all vegetables is difficult due to a lack of knowledge on which sanitizers are ideal for the many types of vegetables grown on farms under different environmental circumstances. Although chlorine-based sanitizers, such as sodium or calcium hypochlorite, have been widely used for the past 50 years, recent research has revealed that chlorine reacts with an organic compound in fresh vegetables to produce trihalomethane, a carcinogen precursor, and as a result, many countries have prohibited the use of chlorine in all foods. As a result, horticulture research groups worldwide are exploring non-chlorine, ecologically friendly sanitizers for the vegetable industry. They also want to understand more about the present procedures in the vegetable business for employing alternative sanitizers, as well as the efficacy and potential dangers to the food safety of fresh salad vegetables. This review paper presents detailed information on non-chlorine sanitizers, such as their efficacy, benefits, drawbacks, regulatory requirements, and the need for additional research to lower the risk of marketed salad vegetable food safety.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research on Microbial Contamination and Microbial Safety in the Food Chain)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Waste-to-Energy Processes as a Municipality-Level Waste Management Strategy: A Case Study of Kočevje, Slovenia
by
Vladimir Prebilič, Matic Može and Iztok Golobič
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051010 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
The escalating challenge of waste management demands innovative strategies to mitigate environmental impacts and harness valuable resources. This study investigates waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies for municipal waste management in Kočevje, Slovenia. An analysis of available waste streams reveals substantial energy potential from mixed municipal
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The escalating challenge of waste management demands innovative strategies to mitigate environmental impacts and harness valuable resources. This study investigates waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies for municipal waste management in Kočevje, Slovenia. An analysis of available waste streams reveals substantial energy potential from mixed municipal waste, biodegradable waste, and livestock manure. Various WtE technologies, including incineration, pyrolysis, gasification, and anaerobic digestion, are compared. The results show that processing mixed municipal waste using thermochemical processes could annually yield up to 0.98 GWh of electricity, and, separately, 3.22 GWh of useable waste heat for district heating or industrial applications. Furthermore, by treating 90% of the biodegradable waste, up to 1.31 GWh of electricity and 1.76 GWh of usable waste heat could be generated annually from biodegradable municipal waste and livestock manure using anaerobic digestion and biogas combustion in a combined heat and power facility. Gasification coupled with a gas-turbine-based combined heat and power cycle is suggested as optimal. Integration of WtE technologies could yield 2.29 GWh of electricity and 3.55 GWh of useable waste heat annually, representing an annual exergy yield of 2.98 GWh. Within the Kočevje municipality, this amount of energy could cover 23.6% of the annual household electricity needs and cover the annual space and water heating requirements of 10.0% of households with district heating. Additionally, CO2-eq. emissions could be reduced by up to 20%, while further offsetting emissions associated with electricity and district heat generation by 1907 tons annually. These findings highlight the potential of WtE technologies to enhance municipal self-sustainability and reduce landfill waste.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Municipal Solid Waste for Energy Production and Resource Recovery)
Open AccessArticle
Production Forecasting at Natural Gas Wells
by
Alina Petronela Prundurel, Ioana Gabriela Stan, Ion Pană, Cristian Nicolae Eparu, Doru Bogdan Stoica and Iuliana Veronica Ghețiu
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051009 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
In Romania, natural gas production is concentrated in two large producers, OMV Petrom and Romgaz. However, there are also smaller companies in the natural gas production area. In these companies, the deposits are mostly mature, or new deposits have low production capacity. Thus,
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In Romania, natural gas production is concentrated in two large producers, OMV Petrom and Romgaz. However, there are also smaller companies in the natural gas production area. In these companies, the deposits are mostly mature, or new deposits have low production capacity. Thus, the production forecast is very important for the continued existence of these companies. The model is based on the pressure variation in the gas reservoir, and the exponential model with production decline is currently used by gas and oil producers. Following the variation in the production of the gas wells, we found that in many cases, the Gaussian and Hubbert forecast models are more suitable for simulating the production pattern of gas wells. The models used to belong to the category of poorly conditioned models, with little data, usually called gray models. Papers published in this category are based on data collected over a period of time and provide a forecast of the model for the next period. The mathematical method can lead to a very good approximation of the known data, as well as short-term forecasting in the continuation of the time interval, for which we have these data. The neural network method requires more data for the network learning stage. Increasing the number of known variables is conducive to a successful model. Often, we do not have this data, or obtaining it is expensive and uneconomical for short periods of possible exploitation. The network model sometimes captures a fairly local pattern and changing conditions require the model to be remade. The model is not valid for a large category of gas wells. The Hubbert and Gauss models used in the article have a more comprehensive character, including a wide category of gas wells whose behavior as evolutionary stages is similar. The model is adapted according to practical observations by reducing the production growth period; the layout is asymmetric around the production peak; and the production range is reduced. Thus, an attempt is made to replace the exponential model with the Hubbert and Gauss models, which were found to be in good agreement with the production values. These models were completed using the Monte Carlo method and matrix of risk evaluation. A better appreciation of monthly production, which is an important aspect of supply contracts, and cumulative production, which is important for evaluating the utility of the investment, is ensured. In addition, we can determine the risk associated with the realization of production at a certain moment of exploitation, generating a complete picture of the forecast over the entire operating interval. A comparison with production results on a case study confirms the benefits of the forecasting procedure used.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Energy Systems)
Open AccessArticle
Oxidation Study and Mechanism Analysis of Desulfurization Ash in Dense-Phase Tower
by
Gang Lu, Hao Li, Hongzhi Ma and Tingshuang Leng
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1008; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051008 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Dense-phase-tower desulfurization technology is an emerging semi-dry flue-gas desulfurization ash process, i.e., the flue gas is allowed to enter the desulfurization tower from the bottom up and, at the same time, is sprayed with a desulfurizing agent that undergoes an acid–base reaction with
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Dense-phase-tower desulfurization technology is an emerging semi-dry flue-gas desulfurization ash process, i.e., the flue gas is allowed to enter the desulfurization tower from the bottom up and, at the same time, is sprayed with a desulfurizing agent that undergoes an acid–base reaction with the flue gas in the ascent process. The calcium sulfite and calcium sulfate produced by the reaction and the part of the desulfurization agent that is not involved in the reaction will enter the subsequent dust removal system, and what is retained is the by-product desulfurization ash. This desulfurization ash contains a large amount of calcium sulfite, which leads to its unstable nature; it is easily oxidized and expands in volume, and, if used in the field of building materials, it will lead to cracking and other problems, so it is difficult to effectively use it. In order to solve this problem, XRF, XRD, and iodometric and other analytical methods were used to determine the specific composition of desulfurization ash, and the muffle furnace and vertical tube furnace were used to study the thermal oxidative modification of calcium sulfite in desulfurization ash, to investigate the effects of the oxygen content, reaction temperature, medium flow rate, and chloride content on the oxidation of calcium sulfite, and to analyze the thermodynamics in the high-temperature oxidation reaction. The results showed that the oxidation rate of calcium sulfite increased with higher reaction temperatures. Increased oxygen content promoted the oxidation rate, particularly at low oxygen levels. The oxidation rate of calcium sulfite correlated positively with the medium flow rate until a rate of 75 mL·min− was reached. At a reaction temperature of 420 °C and a gas flow rate of 85 mL·min−1, the oxidation conversion efficiency exceeded 89%. Chloride content significantly reduced the oxidation rate of calcium sulfite, although this inhibition weakened at temperatures above 500 °C. Kinetic analysis suggested that the oxidation reaction of calcium sulfite predominantly occurred below 500 °C. These findings have both theoretical and practical implications for the thermal oxidation treatment and disposal of desulfurization ash.
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(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)
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Open AccessReview
What Role Does Simulation Play in Sustainable Industrial Development?
by
Julia Nazarejova and Vladimir Modrak
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051007 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Sustainability as a concept is present in most aspects of our everyday life, and industry is no exception. Likewise, there is no doubt that the necessity to produce goods in a sustainable way and to ensure that products are sustainable is gaining more
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Sustainability as a concept is present in most aspects of our everyday life, and industry is no exception. Likewise, there is no doubt that the necessity to produce goods in a sustainable way and to ensure that products are sustainable is gaining more and more attention from producers, customers, governments, and various organizations. Understandably, there are several ways to increase the sustainable development of industrial production. One effective tool is simulation, which can have a significant impact on improving environmental, economic, and social sustainability. This paper explores the role of simulation as a powerful scientific and engineering solution in advancing sustainability within industrial ecosystems. Its main scope is to map the existing literature on the usage of simulation as a supportive tool for achieving this goal. For this purpose, a bibliometric analysis was conducted, allowing for tailored insights into the use of simulation in sustainable production.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Simulation, Modeling, and Decision-Making Processes in Manufacturing Systems and Industrial Engineering)
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Biochar: From Laboratory to Industry Scale—An Overview of Scientific and Industrial Advances, Opportunities in the Brazilian Context, and Contributions to Sustainable Development
by
Fernando Duarte Prochnow, Matheus Cavali, Aline Perin Dresch, Igor Marcon Belli, Nelson Libardi, Junior and Armando Borges de Castilhos, Junior
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1006; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051006 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Waste treatment and valorization have become crucial for sustainable development towards a circular economy. As an alternative, biochar production is a promising process to convert wastes into a valuable product that presents several potential applications to cope with environmental problems. Biochar in recent
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Waste treatment and valorization have become crucial for sustainable development towards a circular economy. As an alternative, biochar production is a promising process to convert wastes into a valuable product that presents several potential applications to cope with environmental problems. Biochar in recent years has been the subject of many studies, which have leveraged the number of patents and the industrial interest in this process. Against this background, this overview aimed: (i) to identify the advances in biochar research; (ii) to assess the number of patents on biochar over the years; (iii) to look at the industrial production of biochar worldwide; (iv) to detect the potential for biochar production in Brazil regarding waste biomass availability; and (v) to discuss the potential of biochar in contributing to reach some Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The holistic analysis presented here suggests that progress has been made in research, patent development, and industrial implementation of biochar, and that its potential role in achieving certain SDGs is noteworthy. Therefore, this overview can be useful in guiding future research about biochar to improve the knowledge of the different branches in this field.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue High-Value Products from Biomass and Wastes)
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Open AccessArticle
Chemical Modification of Birch Bark (Betula L.) for the Improved Bioprocessing of Cadmium(II), Chromium(VI), and Manganese(II) from Aqueous Solutions
by
Jarosław Chwastowski and Paweł Staroń
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051005 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the sorption capacity of a natural sorbent, specifically birch bark (BB), and its modification using chemical reagents, including nitric and hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and chloride. The objective of the chemical modification was to enhance the sorption capacity
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This study aimed to assess the sorption capacity of a natural sorbent, specifically birch bark (BB), and its modification using chemical reagents, including nitric and hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide, and chloride. The objective of the chemical modification was to enhance the sorption capacity of the heavy metals cadmium(II), chromium(VI), and manganese(II). The most effective modification for adsorbing cadmium and manganese from aqueous solutions was achieved by treating the sorbent with a 0.1 M sodium hydroxide solution (BBNa). Conversely, in the case of chromium, each modification adversely affected its adsorption by the sorbent. Concentrations of the solutions were analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry at appropriate time intervals. The adsorption process was described using Langmuir, Freundlich, and Temkin isotherms. The Freundlich isotherm provided the best fit for cadmium and chromium (R2 = 0.988 and 0.986, respectively), while the Langmuir isotherm was most suitable for manganese (R2 = 0.996). The sorption capacity varied for each metal ion: Cd (II)—33.13 mg/g, Cr (VI)—35.98 mg/g, and Mn (II)—24 mg/g for the highest concentration tested. This study employed pseudo–first-rate order, pseudo–second-rate order model kinetics, and the Weber–Morris model to examine the adsorption kinetics. The pseudo–second-rate order kinetics demonstrated the best fit (R2 > 0.94) for each heavy metal, which underlines the process’s chemical nature.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Technologies for Production, Processing, and Extractions of Nature Product Compounds, 2nd Volume)
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Screening of Metal Reduction Potential for Thermochemical Hydrogen Storage
by
Jure Voglar and Blaž Likozar
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051004 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
The screening of all non-radioactive metals without lanthanides for thermochemical hydrogen storage was performed based on physical chemistry calculations. The thermodynamic data were collected from the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) public data repository, which was followed by calculations regarding the
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The screening of all non-radioactive metals without lanthanides for thermochemical hydrogen storage was performed based on physical chemistry calculations. The thermodynamic data were collected from the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) public data repository, which was followed by calculations regarding the change in enthalpy, entropy, Gibbs free energy and equilibrium reaction temperature. The results were critically evaluated based on thermodynamic parameters, viable metals were identified, and their hydrogen storage densities and energy–enthalpy ratios were evaluated. The elements viable for controlled thermochemical hydrogen storage via the reversible reduction and oxidation of metal oxides and metals are manganese (Mn), iron (Fe), molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W). Manganese has the largest theoretical potential for hydrogen storage with reversible reduction and oxidation of metal oxides and metals. The second candidate is iron, while the other two (Mo and W) have much lower potential. More research efforts should be dedicated to experimental testing of the identified metals (Mn, Fe, Mo and W) and their different oxides for thermochemical hydrogen storage capabilities both on laboratory and pilot scales. Ferromanganese alloy(s) might also prove itself as an efficient and affordable thermochemical hydrogen storage material. Our theoretical investigation expanded the knowledge on thermochemical hydrogen storage and is accompanied with a brief literature review revealing the lack of experimental studies, especially on oxidation of metals with water vapor occurring during the hydrogen release phase of the cycle. Consequently, accurate modelling of transport, kinetics and other phenomena during hydrogen storage and release is scarce.
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(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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Open AccessCorrection
Correction: AL-Aoh, H.A. Removal of the Pigment Congo Red from Synthetic Wastewater with a Novel and Inexpensive Adsorbent Generated from Powdered Foeniculum Vulgare Seeds. Processes 2023, 11, 446
by
Hatem A. AL-Aoh
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051003 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
In the original publication [...]
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Open AccessArticle
A Study on the Mechanism of Fracture Initiation and Propagation under Multi-Perforation Conditions in Hydraulic Fracturing
by
Dongwei Ding, Wei Xiong, Wei Guo, Haiqing Yu and Keyuan Wang
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1002; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051002 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
To reveal the mechanism of hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation under the conditions of multiple perforations during horizontal well fracturing, we creatively conducted dual-hole fracturing experiments on small rock samples and established a two-dimensional model of a single cluster with multiple perforations in
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To reveal the mechanism of hydraulic fracture initiation and propagation under the conditions of multiple perforations during horizontal well fracturing, we creatively conducted dual-hole fracturing experiments on small rock samples and established a two-dimensional model of a single cluster with multiple perforations in a horizontal well based on the extended finite element method using the fluid–solid coupling equation, which was combined with the basic theory of damage mechanics. The biggest difference from previous research is that this model does not consider the hypothesis of stress shadows and only focuses on studying the initiation and propagation of multiple perforations in one cluster. We studied the effects of perforation parameters, stress state, and injection flow rate on the initiation and propagation of hydraulic fractures using this model. The experimental and simulation results indicate that under multi-perforation conditions, the number of fractures depends on the number of perforations. The simulation results show that when the spacing between perforations increases or the number of perforations reduces, the initiation time of perforation is advanced and the interference between fractures weakens, which is conducive to the initiation and propagation of hydraulic fractures. As the stress difference increases, the initiation time of perforation becomes earlier and the deflection angle of the outermost fractures becomes smaller, which is conducive to the parallel expansion of the fractures. Moreover, although this has little impact on the morphology of fractures with the rise in flow rate in simulation, it is beneficial for improving the initiation and propagation speed of fractures. The length of fractures also increases significantly at the same time point. In addition, both the experiments and simulations revealed that an increase in the flow rate could accelerate the initiation time of fractures. The proposed model can guide fracturing construction to optimize the design of perforation spacing during horizontal well fracturing, which can contribute to reducing development costs and improving the final production.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Gas Adsorption and Porosity for Enhanced Recovery of Shale Gas)
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Open AccessFeature PaperReview
Comparative Review on the Production and Purification of Bioethanol from Biomass: A Focus on Corn
by
Jean Claude Assaf, Zeinab Mortada, Sid-Ahmed Rezzoug, Zoulikha Maache-Rezzoug, Espérance Debs and Nicolas Louka
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1001; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051001 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
In the contemporary era, conventional energy sources like oil, coal, and natural gas overwhelmingly contribute 89.6% to global CO2 emissions, intensifying environmental challenges. Recognizing the urgency of addressing climate concerns, a pivotal shift towards renewable energy, encompassing solar, wind, and biofuels, is
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In the contemporary era, conventional energy sources like oil, coal, and natural gas overwhelmingly contribute 89.6% to global CO2 emissions, intensifying environmental challenges. Recognizing the urgency of addressing climate concerns, a pivotal shift towards renewable energy, encompassing solar, wind, and biofuels, is crucial for bolstering environmental sustainability. Bioethanol, a globally predominant biofuel, offers a versatile solution, replacing gasoline or integrating into gasoline–ethanol blends while serving as a fundamental building block for various valuable compounds. This review investigates the dynamic landscape of biomass generations, drawing insightful comparisons between the first, second, third, and fourth generations. Amid the drive for sustainability, the deliberate focus on the initial generation of biomass, particularly corn, in bioethanol production is grounded in the current dependence on edible crops. The established utilization of first-generation biomass, exemplified by corn, underscores the necessity for a comprehensive examination of its advantages and challenges, allowing for a nuanced exploration of existing infrastructure and practices. To produce bioethanol from corn feedstock, various milling methods can be employed. Thus, this paper delves into a comparative assessment of dry-milling and wet-milling processes scrutinizing their efficiency, environmental impact, and economic feasibility.
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(This article belongs to the Section Environmental and Green Processes)
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Open AccessArticle
Simulation of Key Influencing Factors of Hydraulic Fracturing Fracture Propagation in a Shale Reservoir Based on the Displacement Discontinuity Method (DDM)
by
Pengcheng Ma and Shanfa Tang
Processes 2024, 12(5), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12051000 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
In the process of the large-scale hydraulic fracturing of a shale gas field in the Weiyuan area of Sichuan province, the quantitative description and evaluation of hydraulic fracture expansion morphology and the three-dimensional distribution law are the key points of evaluation of block
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In the process of the large-scale hydraulic fracturing of a shale gas field in the Weiyuan area of Sichuan province, the quantitative description and evaluation of hydraulic fracture expansion morphology and the three-dimensional distribution law are the key points of evaluation of block fracturing transformation effect. Many scholars have used the finite element method, discrete element method, grid-free method and other numerical simulation methods to quantitatively characterize hydraulic fractures, but there are often the problems that the indoor physical simulation results are much different from the actual results and the accuracy of most quantitative studies is poor. Considering rock mechanics parameters and based on the displacement discontinuity method (DDM), a single-stage multi-cluster fracture propagation model of horizontal well was established. The effects of Young’s modulus, Poisson’s ratio, the in situ stress difference, the approximation angle, the perforation cluster number and the perforation spacing on the formation of complex fracture networks and on the geometrical parameters of hydraulic fractures were simulated. The research results can provide theoretical reference and practical guidance for the optimization of large-scale fracturing parameters and the quantitative post-fracturing evaluation of horizontal wells in unconventional reservoirs such as shale gas reservoirs.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Hydrocarbon Production Processes from Geoenergy)
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Open AccessArticle
Artificial Neural Network Modeling in the Presence of Uncertainty for Predicting Hydrogenation Degree in Continuous Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Processing
by
Chandra Mouli R. Madhuranthakam, Farzad Hourfar and Ali Elkamel
Processes 2024, 12(5), 999; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12050999 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
The transition from batch to continuous production in the catalytic hydrogenation of nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) into hydrogenated NBR (HNBR) marks a significant advance for applications under demanding conditions. This study introduces a continuous process utilizing a static mixer (SM) reactor, which notably
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The transition from batch to continuous production in the catalytic hydrogenation of nitrile butadiene rubber (NBR) into hydrogenated NBR (HNBR) marks a significant advance for applications under demanding conditions. This study introduces a continuous process utilizing a static mixer (SM) reactor, which notably achieves a hydrogenation conversion rate exceeding 97%. We thoroughly review a mechanistic model of the SM reactor to elucidate the internal dynamics governing the hydrogenation process and address the inherent uncertainties in key parameters such as the Peclet number (Pe), dimensionless time (θτ), reaction coefficient (R), and flow rate coefficient (q). A comprehensive dataset generated from varied parameter values serves as the basis for training an artificial neural network (ANN), which is then compared against traditional models including linear regression, decision tree, and random forest in terms of efficacy. Our results clearly demonstrate the ANN’s superiority in predicting the degree of hydrogenation, achieving the lowest root mean squared error (RMSE) of 3.69 compared to 21.90 for linear regression, 4.94 for decision tree, and 7.51 for random forest. The ANN’s robust capability for modeling complex nonlinear relationships and dynamics significantly enhances decision-making, planning, and optimization of the reactor, reducing computational demands and operational costs. In other words, this approach allows users to rely on a single ML-based model instead of multiple mechanistic models for reflecting the effects of possible uncertainties. Additionally, a feature importance study validates the critical impact of time and element number on the hydrogenation process, further supporting the ANN’s predictive accuracy. These findings underscore the potential of ML-based models in streamlining and enhancing the efficiency of chemical production processes.
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(This article belongs to the Section Materials Processes)
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Open AccessArticle
A Li-Ion Battery State of Charge Estimation Strategy Based on the Suboptimal Multiple Fading Factor Extended Kalman Filter Algorithm
by
Weibin Wu, Jinbin Zeng, Qifei Jian, Luxin Tang, Junwei Hou, Chongyang Han, Qian Song and Yuanqiang Luo
Processes 2024, 12(5), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12050998 - 14 May 2024
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The state of charge (SOC) is an important indicator for evaluating a battery management system (BMS), which is crucial for the reliability, performance, and life management of a battery. In this paper, the characteristics of a Li-ion battery are deeply studied to explore
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The state of charge (SOC) is an important indicator for evaluating a battery management system (BMS), which is crucial for the reliability, performance, and life management of a battery. In this paper, the characteristics of a Li-ion battery are deeply studied to explore the charge/discharge curve under different environments. Meanwhile, a second-order RC equivalent circuit model is constructed. The function identification of the EMF and SOC is performed based on the least squares method. The model estimation error is verified by simulation to be less than 0.05 V. Based on the Suboptimal Multiple Fading Factor Extended Kalman Filter (SMFEKF) algorithm, the SOC under constant current and UDDS conditions are estimated. Matlab/simulink simulations illustrate that the estimated accuracy of the proposed algorithm is improved by 79.36% compared with the EKF algorithm. Finally, the validity of the algorithm is verified jointly with the BMS. The results show that the estimation error is within 4% in both constant current condition as well as UDDS conditions, and it can still be predicted quickly and accurately under the uncertainty in the initial value of the SOC.
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Open AccessFeature PaperArticle
Co-Product of Pracaxi Seeds: Quantification of Epicatechin by HPLC-DAD and Microencapsulation of the Extract by Spray Drying
by
Raimundo Lopes da Silva, Lindalva Maria de Meneses Costa Ferreira, José Otávio Carréra Silva-Júnior, Attilio Converti and Roseane Maria Ribeiro-Costa
Processes 2024, 12(5), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr12050997 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
In the industrial processing of fruits, co-products are generated, which are often not used. The pracaxi co-product, obtained by cold pressing its seeds, contains phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity, which in this work were extracted and microencapsulated by spray drying. The pracaxi extract
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In the industrial processing of fruits, co-products are generated, which are often not used. The pracaxi co-product, obtained by cold pressing its seeds, contains phenolic compounds with antioxidant activity, which in this work were extracted and microencapsulated by spray drying. The pracaxi extract was characterized by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC-DAD), and its antioxidant activity was quantified by the ABTS and DPPH assays. Total polyphenol and flavonoid contents in the extract and microparticles were determined by UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Microparticles were then characterized regarding their moisture content, morphology (by scanning electron microscopy), size, polydispersity index and zeta potential. The FTIR spectra revealed functional groups that may be related to phenolic compounds. The extract showed good antioxidant activity according to both selected assays, while the HPLC-DAD analysis evidenced epicatechin as the main compound, whose content was quantified and validated according to the guidelines of recognized national and international agencies. The total polyphenol contents were 20.61 ± 0.20 mg gallic acid equivalent (GAE)/g in the extract and 18.48 ± 0.10 mg GAE/g in the microparticles, while the total flavonoid contents were 28.29 ± 0.70 mg quercetin equivalent (QE)/g and 13.73 ± 0.10 mg QE/g, respectively. Microparticles had a low moisture content, spherical shape, size less than 1 μm and negative zeta potential. Furthermore, they were able to satisfactorily retain phenolic compounds, although in a smaller amount compared to the extract due to small losses resulting from degradation during the drying process. These results, taken as a whole, demonstrate that the pracaxi co-product can be a promising candidate in obtaining products of interest for the cosmetic and food sectors by aiming to exploit its antioxidant activity.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Solid and Hazardous Waste Disposal and Resource Utilization)
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