Journal Description
Forests
Forests
is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal on forestry and forest ecology published monthly online by MDPI.
- Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
- High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, GEOBASE, PubAg, AGRIS, PaperChem, and other databases.
- Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Forestry) / CiteScore - Q1 (Forestry)
- Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 16.9 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2023).
- Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.
- Testimonials: See what our editors and authors say about Forests.
Impact Factor:
2.9 (2022);
5-Year Impact Factor:
3.0 (2022)
Latest Articles
Radial Variation and Early Prediction of Wood Properties in Pinus elliottii Engelm. Plantation
Forests 2024, 15(5), 870; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050870 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2024
Abstract
To explore the radial variation in wood properties of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) during its growth process and to achieve the early prediction of these properties, our study was carried out in three slash pine harvest-age plantations in Ganzhou, Jian, and
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To explore the radial variation in wood properties of slash pine (Pinus elliottii Engelm.) during its growth process and to achieve the early prediction of these properties, our study was carried out in three slash pine harvest-age plantations in Ganzhou, Jian, and Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province of South China. Wood core samples were collected from 360 sample trees from the three plantations. SilviScan technology was utilized to acquire wood property parameters, such as tangential fiber widths (TFWs), radial fiber widths (RFWs), fiber wall thickness (FWT), fiber coarseness (FC), microfibril angle (MFA), modulus of elasticity (MOE), wood density (WD) and ring width (RD). Subsequent systematic analysis focused on the phenotypic and radial variation patterns of wood properties, aiming to establish a clear boundary between juvenile and mature wood. Based on determining the boundary between juvenile and mature wood, a regression equation was used to establish the relationship between the properties of juvenile wood and the ring ages. This relationship was then extended to the mature wood section to predict the properties of mature wood. Our results indicated significant differences in wood properties across different locations. The coefficients of variation for RD and MOE were higher than other properties, suggesting a significant potential for selective breeding. Distinct radial variation patterns in wood properties from the pith to the bark were observed. The boundary between juvenile and mature wood was reached at the age of 22. The prediction models developed for each wood property showed high accuracy, with determination coefficients exceeding 0.87. Additionally, the relative and standard errors between the measured and predicted values were kept below 10.15%, indicating robust predictability. Mature wood exhibited greater strength compared to juvenile wood. The approach of using juvenile wood properties to predict those of mature wood is validated. This method provides a feasible avenue for the early prediction of wood properties in slash pine.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Wood Quality and Mechanical Properties)
Open AccessArticle
Detection of the Pine Wilt Disease Using a Joint Deep Object Detection Model Based on Drone Remote Sensing Data
by
Youping Wu, Honglei Yang and Yunlei Mao
Forests 2024, 15(5), 869; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050869 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Disease and detection is crucial for the protection of forest growth, reproduction, and biodiversity. Traditional detection methods face challenges such as limited coverage, excessive time and resource consumption, and poor accuracy, diminishing the effectiveness of forest disease prevention and control. By addressing these
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Disease and detection is crucial for the protection of forest growth, reproduction, and biodiversity. Traditional detection methods face challenges such as limited coverage, excessive time and resource consumption, and poor accuracy, diminishing the effectiveness of forest disease prevention and control. By addressing these challenges, this study leverages drone remote sensing data combined with deep object detection models, specifically employing the YOLO-v3 algorithm based on loss function optimization, for the efficient and accurate detection of tree diseases and pests. Utilizing drone-mounted cameras, the study captures insect pest image information in pine forest areas, followed by segmentation, merging, and feature extraction processing. The computing system of airborne embedded devices is designed to ensure detection efficiency and accuracy. The improved YOLO-v3 algorithm combined with the CIoU loss function was used to detect forest pests and diseases. Compared to the traditional IoU loss function, CIoU takes into account the overlap area, the distance between the center of the predicted frame and the actual frame, and the consistency of the aspect ratio. The experimental results demonstrate the proposed model’s capability to process pest and disease images at a slightly faster speed, with an average processing time of less than 0.5 s per image, while achieving an accuracy surpassing 95%. The model’s effectiveness in identifying tree pests and diseases with high accuracy and comprehensiveness offers significant potential for developing forest inspection protection and prevention plans. However, limitations exist in the model’s performance in complex forest environments, necessitating further research to improve model universality and adaptability across diverse forest regions. Future directions include exploring advanced deep object detection models to minimize computing resource demands and enhance practical application support for forest protection and pest control.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest/Urban Forest Systems under Climate Change: Carbon Dynamics, Ecological Functions, and Sustainable Management)
Open AccessArticle
Continuous Leaf Area Index (LAI) Observation in Forests: Validation, Application, and Improvement of LAI-NOS
by
Zhentao Gao, Yunping Chen, Zhengjian Zhang, Tianxin Duan, Juncheng Chen and Ainong Li
Forests 2024, 15(5), 868; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050868 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
The leaf area index (LAI) is one of the core parameters reflecting the growth status of vegetation. The continuous long-term observation of the LAI is key when assessing the dynamic changes in the energy exchange of ecosystems and the vegetation’s response indicators to
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The leaf area index (LAI) is one of the core parameters reflecting the growth status of vegetation. The continuous long-term observation of the LAI is key when assessing the dynamic changes in the energy exchange of ecosystems and the vegetation’s response indicators to climate change. The errors brought about by non-standard operations in manual LAI measurements hinder the further research utilization of this parameter. The long-term automatic LAI observation network is helpful in reducing errors from manual measurements. To further test the applicability of automatic LAI observation instruments in forest environments, this study carried out comparative validation research of the LAI-NOS (LAI automatic network observation system) at the Wanglang Mountain Ecological Remote Sensing Comprehensive Observation Station, China, comparing it with the results measured by the LAI-2200 Plant Canopy Analyzer (LI-COR, Lincoln, NE, USA), the LAI-probe handheld instrument, and a fisheye lens digital camera (DHP method). Instead of using the original “smoothest window” method, a new method, the “sunrise–sunset” method, is used to extract daily LAI-NOS LAI, and the corresponding confidence level is used to filter the data. The results of the data analysis indicate the following: LAI-NOS has a high data stability. The automatically acquired daily data between two consecutive days has a small deviation and significant correlations. Single-angle/multi-angle LAI measurement results of the LAI-NOS have good correlations with the LAI-2200 (R2 = 0.512/R2 = 0.652), the LAI-probe (R2 = 0.692/R2 = 0.619), and the DHP method (R2 = 0.501/R2 = 0.394). The daily LAI obtained from the improved method, when compared to the original method, both show the same vegetation growth trend. However, the improved method has a smaller dispersion. This study confirms the stability and accuracy of automatic observation instruments in mountainous forests, demonstrating the distinct advantages of automatic measurement instruments in the long-term ground observation of LAIs.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
Open AccessArticle
Afforestation Enhances Potential Bacterial Metabolic Function without Concurrent Soil Carbon: A Case Study of Mu Us Sandy Land
by
Yang Zheng, Jiuying Pei, Zhun Tian, Pingxing Wan and Danfeng Li
Forests 2024, 15(5), 867; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050867 - 16 May 2024
Abstract
Elucidating the impact of afforestation on soil bacterial community composition and its potential function in afforestation is imperative for comprehending the biochemical processes of land use change. This study employed high-throughput genomic sequencing to determine the bacterial phylogenetic assembly and assess functional groups
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Elucidating the impact of afforestation on soil bacterial community composition and its potential function in afforestation is imperative for comprehending the biochemical processes of land use change. This study employed high-throughput genomic sequencing to determine the bacterial phylogenetic assembly and assess functional groups following afforestation encompassing shrubland and woodland. Compared with non-afforested cropland, the soil organic carbon (SOC) remained unchanged, but significant alterations were observed in the bacterial composition and potential functions under afforestation. Afforestation enhanced bacterial diversity and even shifted the bacteria from the r- to K-strategy, as indicated by higher oligotroph/copiotroph ratios. Soil properties explained 66.45% and 68.9% of the total variation in bacterial community composition at the phylum level and the functional group. A 60.44% decrease in soil water content, a 3.82% increase in pH, a 7.5% increase in bulk density, and a 66.8% decrease in available phosphorus (AP) were the main soil factors affecting both bacterial community composition and functional traits in afforestation. In particular, lower available nutrients, AP, and nitrate nitrogen in afforestation drive the bacterial life history strategies. We conclude that changes in bacterial metabolic functions due to reduced soil available nutrients from dryland afforestation might be the main driver for microbial-inhibited SOC accumulation. These results could provide strong microbiological evidence to help further evaluate the importance of dryland afforestation.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Forest Soil Carbon in a Changing World)
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Open AccessArticle
Soil Requirements, Genetic Diversity and Population History of the Juniperus sabina L. Varieties in Europe and Asia
by
Katarzyna A. Jadwiszczak, Małgorzata Mazur, Agnieszka Bona, Katarzyna Marcysiak and Adam Boratyński
Forests 2024, 15(5), 866; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050866 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Trees and shrubs belonging to the genus Juniperus L. are pivotal species in arid and semiarid ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere. However, unfavourable phenomena are observed in their populations due to global warming. We aimed to investigate the soil requirements, genetic diversity and
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Trees and shrubs belonging to the genus Juniperus L. are pivotal species in arid and semiarid ecosystems in the Northern Hemisphere. However, unfavourable phenomena are observed in their populations due to global warming. We aimed to investigate the soil requirements, genetic diversity and population history of Juniperus sabina L. from Europe, Georgia, and Kyrgyzstan. Genetic resources were evaluated in 16 populations using nuclear microsatellites, while past demographic events were described based on the chloroplast DNA haplotypes. Seven chemical parameters in 36 soil samples from the European range of J. sabina were compared. In the studied area, three distinct phylogenetic lineages corresponding to different varieties of J. sabina, namely var. sabina, var. balkanensis, and the Asian variety, were revealed. Unimodal mismatch distributions and significantly negative Tajima’s D and Fu’s Fs parameters indicated that the sabina and balkanensis varieties underwent a population expansion. Microsatellite variation was moderate, potentially influenced by inbreeding, clonal propagation, and limited gene flow between populations. Bayesian clustering revealed five genetic groups. Compared to var. sabina, the balkanensis variety occupies areas with significantly higher potassium content in the soil, which probably mitigates the adverse effects of drought in its localities.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Mediterranean Biodiversity)
Open AccessArticle
Population Status of the Endangered Semi-Mangrove Dolichandrone spathacea on Hainan Island, China
by
Mi Tian, Xinran Ke, Ming Li, Kaixuan Deng, Yong Yang, Zanshan Fang, Cairong Zhong, Shen Li, Zhengjie Zhu, Nora Fung-Yee Tam, Tao Lang and Haichao Zhou
Forests 2024, 15(5), 865; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050865 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
In China, Dolichandrone spathacea is a rare and endangered semi-mangrove plant species with an extremely small population, naturally distributed only in Zhanjiang City and the east coast of Hainan Island. Despite conservation concerns, the population status of D. spathacea has received little scientific attention. In
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In China, Dolichandrone spathacea is a rare and endangered semi-mangrove plant species with an extremely small population, naturally distributed only in Zhanjiang City and the east coast of Hainan Island. Despite conservation concerns, the population status of D. spathacea has received little scientific attention. In this study, we evaluated the current status of D. spathacea on Hainan Island, China, in order to propose sustainable conservation strategies for future ecological restoration of its natural population. D. spathacea on Hainan Island can be divided into four populations. All the D. spathacea populations present a state of overall dispersion, local concentration, and occasionally sporadic existence, and they exist in geographical isolation. The young, middle, and old D. spathacea plants account for 20.42%, 66.20%, and 13.38%, respectively, indicating that the D. spathacea population on Hainan Island is declining. Furthermore, instead of temporal structure, we used diameter at breast height (DBH) to establish a static life table, draw a population survival curve, and quantify the future development trend through population dynamic analysis and time-series prediction. These results suggest that the D. spathacea population in the Bamen Gulf (Wenchang) and Qingmei Harbor (Sanya) on Hainan Island is sensitive to external disturbances and possesses two main increases in mortality rate—namely, in its juvenile and mature stages—due to competition and anthropogenic interferences, which might be the most important reasons for its endangered status. Depending on the current conditions of the D. spathacea population, we should conserve and expand mature trees in situ, preserve their germplasm resources, rehabilitate their habitats to promote provenance restoration, and conduct artificial cultivation and spreading planting in order to realize the sustainable conservation and management of D. spathacea.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Mangrove Ecosystems on Coastal Ecology and Climate Change)
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Open AccessArticle
Chloroplast Haplotype Diversity in the White Oak Populations of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Sardinia
by
Romeo Di Pietro, Luca Quaranta, Claudia Mattioni, Marco Cosimo Simeone, Piera Di Marzio, Elisa Proietti and Paola Fortini
Forests 2024, 15(5), 864; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050864 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
A phylogeographic study on the chloroplast DNA of natural white oak forests (Quercus subgen. Quercus, sect. Quercus) was carried out to identify possible haplotype-structured distribution within the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Sardinia. Sixty white oak populations belonging to Q. frainetto
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A phylogeographic study on the chloroplast DNA of natural white oak forests (Quercus subgen. Quercus, sect. Quercus) was carried out to identify possible haplotype-structured distribution within the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Sardinia. Sixty white oak populations belonging to Q. frainetto, Q. robur and the collective groups Q. petraea and Q. pubescens were considered and analyzed by combining five Chloroplast Simple Sequence Repeat (cpSSR) markers. A total of 28 haplotypes were detected. Central and southern Italy displayed the highest variability (14 and 10 haplotypes, respectively), followed by northern Italy (7), Sardinia (7), and Sicily (5). A complex geographical structure of the haplotype distribution emerged, highlighting (i) a high number of low-frequency haplotypes; (ii) the marked isolation of Sardinia; (iii) the occurrence of haplotypes widely distributed throughout the Italian Peninsula; (iv) the idiosyncrasy of Sicily, which exhibits exclusive haplotypes, and haplotypes shared with Sardinia and the rest of the Italian Peninsula. The haplotype distribution was also found to be partially related to the taxonomic identity of the specimens, with the following features emerging: a geographic separation between the central Italy and southern Italy Q. frainetto populations, an unexpected discontinuity between the Calabrian and Sicilian Q. petraea subsp. austrotyrrhenica populations, and the absence of the most common haplotype among the Q. pubescens populations of central and southern Italy.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Species Distribution, Diversity and Growth under Climate Change)
Open AccessArticle
Analysis of Spatial Differentiation of NDVI and Climate Factors on the Upper Limit of Montane Deciduous Broad-Leaved Forests in the East Monsoon Region of China
by
Zhiyong Wang, Fang Han, Chuanrong Li, Kun Li and Zhe Wang
Forests 2024, 15(5), 863; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050863 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
The vertical transition zone of mountain vegetation is characterized by high species diversity, and the width of the transition zone may serve as an indirect indicator of climate change. However, research into the differential characteristics of vegetation response to climate changes at the
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The vertical transition zone of mountain vegetation is characterized by high species diversity, and the width of the transition zone may serve as an indirect indicator of climate change. However, research into the differential characteristics of vegetation response to climate changes at the boundary of vertical transition zones has been limited. This study employs MODIS and climate data spanning 2001 to 2018 to investigate spatiotemporal trends in precipitation (PRE), temperature (TMP), radiation (RAD), and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) across nine montane deciduous broad-leaved forests in the eastern monsoon region of China. It explores the time-lag and -accumulation effects of climatic variables on NDVI, quantifying their relative contributions to both its short-term and interannual variations. Results show that, notably, with the Qinling-Daba Mountains as a demarcation, northern regions exhibit significant increases in RAD (0.874–2.047 W m−2/a), whereas southern regions demonstrate notable rises in TMP (0.59–0.73 °C/10a). Areas of lower annual PRE correspond to the most rapid increases in annual average NDVI (5.045 × 10−3/a). NDVI’s lag time and cumulative duration responses to TMP are the shortest (0 and 2~4 periods), while its correlation with RAD is the strongest (0.815–0.975), generally decreasing from higher to lower latitudes. TMP significantly affects NDVI variations, impacting both short-term and interannual trends, with PRE driving short-term fluctuations and RAD dictating long-term shifts. This research provides critical data and a theoretical framework that enhances our understanding of how regional vegetation’s vertical zonation responds to climate change, thereby making a substantial contribution to the study of mountain vegetation’s diverse adaptability to climatic variations.
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(This article belongs to the Section Forest Meteorology and Climate Change)
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Open AccessArticle
The Effect of Green Stormwater Infrastructures on Urban-Tier Human Thermal Comfort—A Case Study in High-Density Urban Blocks
by
Haishun Xu, Jianhua Liao and Yating Hong
Forests 2024, 15(5), 862; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050862 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) is a key approach to greening and cooling high-density blocks. Previous studies have focused on the impact of a single GSI on thermal comfort on sunny days, ignoring rainwater’s role and GSI combinations. Therefore, based on measured data of
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Green stormwater infrastructure (GSI) is a key approach to greening and cooling high-density blocks. Previous studies have focused on the impact of a single GSI on thermal comfort on sunny days, ignoring rainwater’s role and GSI combinations. Therefore, based on measured data of a real urban area in Nanjing, China, this study utilized 45 single-GSI and combination simulation scenarios, as well as three local climate zone (LCZ) baseline scenarios to compare and analyze three high-density blocks within the city. Among the 32 simulations specifically conducted in LCZ1 and LCZ2, 2 of them were dedicated to baseline scenario simulations, whereas the remaining 30 simulations were evenly distributed across LCZ1 and LCZ2, with 15 simulations allocated to each zone. The physiological equivalent temperature (PET) was calculated using the ENVI-met specification to evaluate outdoor thermal comfort. The objective of this research was to determine the optimal GSI combinations for different LCZs, their impact on pedestrian thermal comfort, GSI response to rainwater, and the effect of GSI on pedestrian recreation areas. Results showed that GSI combinations are crucial for improving thermal comfort in compact high-rise and mid-rise areas, while a single GSI suffices in low-rise areas. In extreme heat, rainfall is vital for GSI’s effectiveness, and complex GSI can extend the thermal comfort improvement time following rainfall by more than 1 h. Adding shading and trees to GSI combinations maximizes thermal comfort in potential crowd activity areas, achieving up to 54.23% improvement. Future GSI construction in high-density blocks should focus on different combinations of GSI based on different LCZs, offering insights for GSI planning in Southeast Asia.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Human Well-Being through Urban Forestry: Strategies for Planning, Policies and Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Perception of Locals on Multiple Contributions of NTFPs to the Livelihoods of Forest Fringe Communities in Ghana
by
Obed Asamoah, Jones Abrefa Danquah, Dastan Bamwesigye, Emmanuel Amoah Boakye, Mark Appiah and Ari Pappinen
Forests 2024, 15(5), 861; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050861 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Forest-dwelling residents frequently collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for various reasons, such as food, medicine, firewood, religious reasons, or handicrafts. This study examines the multiple benefits derived from NTFPs and how they contribute to the livelihoods of Ghanaian communities to alleviate poverty. Resources
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Forest-dwelling residents frequently collect non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for various reasons, such as food, medicine, firewood, religious reasons, or handicrafts. This study examines the multiple benefits derived from NTFPs and how they contribute to the livelihoods of Ghanaian communities to alleviate poverty. Resources and services provided by NTFPs have an essential role in providing economic, nutritional, medicinal, cultural, and environmental benefits. This study examines the diverse range of NTFPs locals collect, such as chewing sticks, games, herbs, honey, leaves, mushrooms, pestles, raffia and palms, snails, and straws. In addition to serving different purposes, these NTFPs contribute to income generation, food security, health care, cultural practices, and the protection of the environment. A qualitative research approach was used in this study to collect data through semi-structured interviews and focus groups with members on multiple collections of NTFPs and their multiple benefits. We interviewed 732 residents regarding their multiple NTFPs and their potential to improve the livelihood of the locals. The data for the study were analysed using descriptive statistics. As a result of the survey, the frequency and percentages of responses were analysed for each indicator related to multiple values of NTFPs. Both males and females collected a list of NTFPs during the survey. Regarding NTFPs used for sale, 275 were reported, representing 37.57% of the total. In addition to emphasising the importance of sustainable management practices and equitable distribution of benefits, the study explores the multiple benefits of NTFPs for poverty alleviation in Ghanaian communities. It is essential to ensure the conservation of forest ecosystems and promote inclusive policies to harness the potential of NTFPs and maximise their positive impact on livelihoods. NTFPs provide multiple benefits for Ghanaian communities, including income, nutrition, healthcare, cultural preservation, and environmental sustainability. To promote sustainable development, it is imperative to understand the role of NTFPs and implement appropriate strategies.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Economic Valuation of Forest Resources)
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Open AccessArticle
Wood Quality of Young Tectona grandis L. f. Trees and Its Relationship with Genetic Material and Planting Site in Mato Grosso, Brazil
by
Leandro Vinicius Carbonato de Souza, Jackeline Eliada Cichoski da Silva, Tielis Lucas Bianchini Azevedo, Adriano Reis Prazeres Mascarenhas, Luis Alberto Ugalde Arias, Bárbara Luísa Corradi Pereira and Aylson Costa Oliveira
Forests 2024, 15(5), 860; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050860 - 15 May 2024
Abstract
Tectona grandis L. f. (teak) is highly valued in the international market, but its volume and properties vary depending on its genetic material and planting site. Evaluating these factors is crucial for promoting new plantations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact
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Tectona grandis L. f. (teak) is highly valued in the international market, but its volume and properties vary depending on its genetic material and planting site. Evaluating these factors is crucial for promoting new plantations. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impact of genetic material (clones TG1 and TG3 and seminal material) and planting site (Nova Maringá and Água Boa, Mato Grosso, Brazil) on morphological parameters (heartwood, sapwood, bark, pith proportions, and pith eccentricity), physical properties (shrinkage and air-dry density), and mechanical properties (static bending strength—fm, compressive strength—fc0, Janka hardness—fH90, and shear strength—fv0). For this purpose, we sampled five trees aged 13 years per genetic material from commercial plantations. In Nova Maringá, trees exhibited, on average, 56.07% heartwood, while in Água Boa, this value was less than 50%. Seminal material showed the lowest percentage of heartwood (49.2%). The pith percentage was significantly greater in Água Boa than in Nova Maringá, regardless of the genetic material. We observed the highest standard deviation (5.61) in pith eccentricity for the seminal material. Both the planting site and genetic material influenced the air-dry density (~12% moisture content), which ranged from 0.535 to 0.618 g·cm−3. Trees grown in Nova Maringá produced wood with higher dimensional stability than those from Água Boa, exhibiting a 14% lower radial shrinkage and a 6% lower volumetric variation. In Nova Maringá, the wood from the seminal material exhibited greater resistance. On the other hand, in Água Boa, that material showed lower resistance (fv0, fm, and fc0), or there was no significant difference (fH90) compared to the clonal materials. When comparing the clonal materials (TG1 and TG3) at each planting site, they demonstrated similar mechanical properties. The variability in physical and mechanical properties among different genetic materials and planting locations highlights the need to select appropriate teak genetic materials for each region. We concluded that more productive teak clones can be selected without compromising the physical and mechanical properties of the wood.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Study of Wood Mechanical and Physical Properties)
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Open AccessArticle
RMSRGAN: A Real Multispectral Imagery Super-Resolution Reconstruction for Enhancing Ginkgo Biloba Yield Prediction
by
Kaixuan Fan, Min Hu, Maocheng Zhao, Liang Qi, Weijun Xie, Hongyan Zou, Bin Wu, Shuaishuai Zhao and Xiwei Wang
Forests 2024, 15(5), 859; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050859 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Multispectral remote sensing data with abundant spectral information can be used to compute vegetation indices to improve the accuracy of Ginkgo biloba yield prediction. The limited spatial resolution of multispectral cameras restricts the detail capture over wide farmland, but super-resolution (SR) reconstruction methods
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Multispectral remote sensing data with abundant spectral information can be used to compute vegetation indices to improve the accuracy of Ginkgo biloba yield prediction. The limited spatial resolution of multispectral cameras restricts the detail capture over wide farmland, but super-resolution (SR) reconstruction methods can enhance image quality. However, most existing SR models have been trained on images processed from downsampled high-resolution (HR) images, making them less effective in reconstructing real low-resolution (LR) images. This study proposes a GAN-based super-resolution reconstruction method (RMSRGAN) for multispectral remote sensing images of Ginkgo biloba trees in real scenes. A U-Net-based network is employed instead of the traditional discriminator. Convolutional block attention modules (CBAMs) are incorporated into the Residual-in-Residual Dense Blocks (RRDBs) of the generator and the U-Net of the discriminator to preserve image details and texture features. An unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) equipped with a multispectral camera was employed to capture field multispectral remote sensing images of Ginkgo biloba trees at different spatial resolutions. Four matching HR and LR datasets were created from these images to train RMSRGAN. The proposed model outperforms the traditional models by achieving superior results in both quantitative evaluation metrics (peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) is 32.490, 31.085, 27.084, 26.819, and structural similarity index (SSIM) is 0.894, 0.881, 0.832, 0.818, respectively) and qualitative evaluation visualization. Furthermore, the efficiency of our proposed method was tested by generating individual vegetation indices (VIs) from images taken before and after reconstruction to predict the yield of Ginkgo biloba. The results show that the SR images exhibit better and values than LR images. These findings show that RMSRGAN can improve the spatial resolution of real multispectral images, increasing the accuracy of Ginkgo biloba yield prediction and providing more effective and accurate data support for crop management.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
Open AccessArticle
Combined Effects of the Visual–Acoustic Environment on Public Response in Urban Forests
by
Yuxiang Lan, Yuanyang Tang, Zhanhua Liu, Xiong Yao, Zhipeng Zhu, Fan Liu, Junyi Li, Jianwen Dong and Ye Chen
Forests 2024, 15(5), 858; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050858 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Urban forests are increasingly recognized as vital components of urban ecosystems, offering a plethora of physiological and psychological benefits to residents. However, the existing research has often focused on single dimensions of either visual or auditory experiences, overlooking the combined impact of audio–visual
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Urban forests are increasingly recognized as vital components of urban ecosystems, offering a plethora of physiological and psychological benefits to residents. However, the existing research has often focused on single dimensions of either visual or auditory experiences, overlooking the combined impact of audio–visual environments on public health and well-being. This study addresses this gap by examining the effects of composite audio–visual settings within three distinct types of urban forests in Fuzhou, China: mountain, mountain–water, and waterfront forests. Through field surveys and quantitative analysis at 24 sample sites, we assessed visual landscape elements, soundscapes, physiological indicators (e.g., heart rate, skin conductance), and psychological responses (e.g., spiritual vitality, stress relief, emotional arousal, attention recovery) among 77 participants. Our findings reveal that different forest types exert varying influences on visitors’ physiology and psychology, with waterfront forests generally promoting relaxation and mountain–water forests inducing a higher degree of tension. Specific audio–visual elements, such as plant, water scenes, and natural sounds, positively affect psychological restoration, whereas urban noise is associated with increased physiological stress indicators. In conclusion, the integrated effects of audio–visual landscapes significantly shape the multisensory experiences of the public in urban forests, underscoring the importance of optimal design that incorporates natural elements to create restorative environments beneficial to the health and well-being of urban residents. These insights not only contribute to the scientific understanding of urban forest impact but also inform the design and management of urban green spaces for enhanced public health outcomes.
Full article
(This article belongs to the Topic Biophilic Cities and Communities: Towards Natural Resources, Environmental and Social Sustainability)
Open AccessArticle
Bending Properties of Cold-Formed Thin-Walled Steel/Fast-Growing Timber Composite I-Beams
by
Tianshu Chen, Zhihua Chen, Jiadi Liu and Anling Zhang
Forests 2024, 15(5), 857; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050857 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
A cold-formed, thin-walled steel/fast-growing timber composite system has recently been presented for low-rise buildings. It aims to increase the use of fast-growing wood as a green building material in structures, thus contributing to the transformation of traditional buildings. This study proposed a composite
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A cold-formed, thin-walled steel/fast-growing timber composite system has recently been presented for low-rise buildings. It aims to increase the use of fast-growing wood as a green building material in structures, thus contributing to the transformation of traditional buildings. This study proposed a composite I-beam combined with fast-growing radiata pine and cold-formed thin-walled U-shaped steel. A four-point bending test was used to measure the bending properties of steel–timber composite I-beams under various connection methods. Based on experimental results, this study examined the specimen’s failure mechanism, mechanical properties, and strain development. In addition, a method for calculating flexural bearing capacity based on the superposition principle and transformed section method was suggested. It is evident from the results that fast-growing timber and cold-formed thin-walled steel can have significant composite effects. Different connecting methods significantly impact beams’ failure mode, stiffness, and bearing capacity. Furthermore, the theoretical method for calculating the flexural bearing capacity of composite beams differs from the test value by less than 10%. This paper’s research encourages the applications of fast-growing wood as light residential components, and it serves as a reference for the development, production, and engineering of steel–timber composite structural systems.
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(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)
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Open AccessArticle
Effects of CO2 and Soil Moisture Treatments on Morphological and Allometric Trait Variation in Coppiced Seedlings: A Study of Four Early-Successional Deciduous Species
by
Axel Brisebois and John E. Major
Forests 2024, 15(5), 856; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050856 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
Atmospheric CO2 levels have been increasing, and likewise, increasing drought events have been following increasing temperatures. There is very little literature on the effects of climate change factors on early-successional deciduous species used for ecological restoration. Thus, morphological and allometric variation in
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Atmospheric CO2 levels have been increasing, and likewise, increasing drought events have been following increasing temperatures. There is very little literature on the effects of climate change factors on early-successional deciduous species used for ecological restoration. Thus, morphological and allometric variation in four coppiced early-successional deciduous species was examined in response to a 2 × 2 factorial of ambient CO2 (aCO2, 400 ppm) and elevated CO2 (eCO2, 800 ppm), as well as well-watered and drought treatments with 15%–20% and 5%–10% volumetric moisture content, respectively, grown in sandy soil with low soil nitrogen (N) under greenhouse conditions. The four species examined were as follows: green alder (Alnus viridis subsp. crispa (Ait.) Turrill), speckled alder (A. incana subsp. rugosa (Du Roi) R.T. Clausen), gray birch (Betula populifolia (Marshall)), and white birch (B. papyrifera (Marshall)), and all are from the same phylogenetic family, Betulaceae. Genus differences in morphological and growth traits were large, especially in response to the environmental treatments used. Alders upregulated all growth traits under eCO2 because of the strong coppicing sink effect and the additional foliar N provided by the actinorhizal ability of the genus, whereas birches remained the same or slightly decreased under eCO2. As a result, alders have a significantly greater foliar N than birches, with 2.8 and 1.0%, respectively. All species reduced growth under drought, and green alder had the greatest stem dry mass growth, followed by speckled alder and then the birches. Under drought, eCO2 not only mitigated the alder drought dry mass but, in fact, doubled the stem dm, whereas eCO2 only just mitigated the birches drought response. When corrected for size using stem height, alders allocated more to stem and leaf and less to root dry mass than birches. Atmospheric CO2 and soil moisture treatments changed organ biomass allocation. The tallest stem height was the best predictor of total (above and below) dry mass. With increasing atmospheric CO2, particularly on low nutrient sites, the results show alders are capable of sequestering far more carbon than birches. In addition, with more atmospheric CO2, alders can mitigate against drought conditions better compared to birches.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adaptive Mechanisms of Tree Seedlings to Adapt to Stress—Second Edition)
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Open AccessReview
Currently Available Site Index Equations That Use On-Site Tree Measurements for Naturally Regenerated Longleaf Pine in Its Historical Range
by
Curtis L. VanderSchaaf
Forests 2024, 15(5), 855; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050855 - 14 May 2024
Abstract
The longleaf pine (Pinus palustris P. Mill.) forest type occupied a much greater area in the United States prior to the arrival of Europeans, estimated to be around 37.2 million hectares. This area has been greatly reduced, and these ecosystems now occupy
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The longleaf pine (Pinus palustris P. Mill.) forest type occupied a much greater area in the United States prior to the arrival of Europeans, estimated to be around 37.2 million hectares. This area has been greatly reduced, and these ecosystems now occupy only about 1.2 to 1.6 million hectares. However, there has been a great interest in the restoration of this forest type mainly due to concerns about the loss of ecosystem services associated with these forests; the improved seedling quality and yield potentials bolster those efforts. Beyond that, existing stands are actively managed through different types of practices, including thinnings, prescribed burns often to manipulate the vegetation of other species, and the various timings of clearcuts. Thus, managers need tools to estimate site quality and ultimately productivity. A commonly used measure of site quality is site index, or the height of some defined dominant portion of the stand at a standardized base or index age. The primary objectives are to summarize the 16 existing equations to estimate site index and dominant height in naturally regenerated longleaf pine stands and to examine and visually compare their predicted behavior across a range of site quality and age conditions. Important considerations when using site index of anamorphism and polymorphism as well as base-age invariance are reviewed. Biologically, polymorphism is often considered advantageous since for many species differences in site quality not only result in different asymptotic dominant heights, but also varying rates in their approach to the asymptote. Of the 16 equations examined, only nine of them were polymorphic in nature, but all equations were base-age invariant. There is not an individual equation that is clearly superior because, for instance, it is either anamorphic in nature, is polymorphic but developed based on anamorphic curves, fit using data obtained from temporary plots, or it is limited geographically. Given these limitations, others can use this publication as a reference to determine which equation they feel is best for their particular situation.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Longleaf Pine Ecology, Restoration, and Management)
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Open AccessArticle
Relative Expression of Genes Elicited by Clonostachys rosea in Pinus radiata Induces Systemic Resistance
by
Priscila Moraga-Suazo, Regis Le-Feuvre, Dario Navarrete and Eugenio Sanfuentes
Forests 2024, 15(5), 854; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050854 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Radiata pine is one of the most commonly planted tree species in Chile due to its fast growth and desirable wood and pulp properties. However, its productivity is hampered by several diseases. Pitch canker disease (PCC) caused by Fusarium circinatum, is considered
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Radiata pine is one of the most commonly planted tree species in Chile due to its fast growth and desirable wood and pulp properties. However, its productivity is hampered by several diseases. Pitch canker disease (PCC) caused by Fusarium circinatum, is considered the most damaging disease to the pine forest industry. Several control measures have been established, with biological control emerging as an environmentally friendly and effective way for F. circinatum control. Previous studies support the value of Clonostachys rosea in reducing PCC damage, with evidence suggesting a potential induced systemic resistance (ISR) triggered in radiata pines by this agent. Ten-month-old radiata pine plants were pre-treated with C. rosea on a substrate at 8 and 1 days before inoculation with F. circinatum on the stem tip, and expression levels were determined for DXS1, LOX, PAL, and PR3 genes 24 h later. Lesion length was 45% lower on plants pre-treated with C. rosea and infected with F. circinatum compared to non-pre-treated and infected plants. Additionally, LOX and PR3 were induced 23 and 62 times more, respectively, in comparison to untreated plants. Our results indicate that C. rosea causes an ISR response in pre-treated plants, significantly increasing the expression of resistance genes and reducing lesion length.
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(This article belongs to the Section Forest Health)
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Open AccessArticle
A Study of the Emotional and Cognitive Effects of Long-Term Exposure to Nature Virtual Reality (VR) Videos on Mobile Terminals
by
Xiaobo Wang, Ying Jin, Xuebing Li, Yang Song and Dongni Pan
Forests 2024, 15(5), 853; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050853 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Research Highlights: This study examined the emotional and cognitive health benefits of nature in comparison with working memory training. It considered the long-term effects, the application of mobile terminal technology, and routine-based approaches with the aim of integrating nature’s health benefits into people’s
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Research Highlights: This study examined the emotional and cognitive health benefits of nature in comparison with working memory training. It considered the long-term effects, the application of mobile terminal technology, and routine-based approaches with the aim of integrating nature’s health benefits into people’s daily lives. Background and Objectives: Infectious diseases and aging may limit people’s activities indoors; the recovery effect of nature has been widely recognized, and terminal technology is developing rapidly. In this context, we want to explore the emotional and cognitive effects of viewing nature (VR) videos on mobile devices for a long time. Materials and Methods: The experiment employed a between-subjects design, with participants being randomly assigned to one of four groups: a forest VR video group, a water VR group, a working memory training group, and a control group. The participants watched the video three times a week for 20 min each for four weeks. The number of valid participants for compliance, preference, and willingness was 136, and the number of valid participants for the study of emotional and cognitive effects was 62. Brief Profile of Mood States (BPOMS) scales, running memory accuracy, shifting cost, etc., were used as indicators to reflect emotions and cognition. A repeated measures analysis of variance was performed on these indicators at four groups × two time points (pretest/post-test). Results: ① There were no significant differences in the participants’ adherence, preferences, and willingness to watch different natural videos and perform working memory training. ② Long-term home training (e.g., watching VR nature videos or working memory training) may have had a minimal effect on emotional responses to mobile terminals. However, home training may be more conducive to the stabilization of anger. ③ Watching forest VR videos had a positive effect on the updating function of the brain; watching water VR videos was beneficial for the shifting function and automatic processing speed; and working memory training had a positive effect on the updating and shifting functions. Conclusions: There were no significant differences in adherence, preference, willingness, and effects on emotion and cognition between long-term forest VR video viewing, water VR video viewing, and working memory training on mobile terminals. All three types of home training may be beneficial for the stabilization of emotion (especially anger), and all can have some positive effects on cognition.
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(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)
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Open AccessReview
A Review: Tree Species Classification Based on Remote Sensing Data and Classic Deep Learning-Based Methods
by
Lihui Zhong, Zhengquan Dai, Panfei Fang, Yong Cao and Leiguang Wang
Forests 2024, 15(5), 852; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050852 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Timely and accurate information on tree species is of great importance for the sustainable management of natural resources, forest inventory, biodiversity detection, and carbon stock calculation. The advancement of remote sensing technology and artificial intelligence has facilitated the acquisition and analysis of remote
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Timely and accurate information on tree species is of great importance for the sustainable management of natural resources, forest inventory, biodiversity detection, and carbon stock calculation. The advancement of remote sensing technology and artificial intelligence has facilitated the acquisition and analysis of remote sensing data, resulting in more precise and effective classification of tree species. A review of the remote sensing data and deep learning tree species classification methods is lacking in its analysis of unimodal and multimodal remote sensing data and classification methods in this field. To address this gap, we search for major trends in remote sensing data and tree species classification methods, provide a detailed overview of classic deep learning-based methods for tree species classification, and discuss some limitations of tree species classification.
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(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)
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Effects of Antheraea pernyi on Parasitization of Kriechbaumerella dendrolimi by Using Immunology and Metabolomics
by
Yuwen Que, Xinyuan Fang, Zhenhui Zhao, Zhenhong Chen, Ciding Lu, Qiufang Zheng, Jiajin Tan, Feiping Zhang and Guanghong Liang
Forests 2024, 15(5), 851; https://doi.org/10.3390/f15050851 - 13 May 2024
Abstract
Kriechbaumerella dendrolimi (Hymenoptera, Chalcididae) is a dominant pupal parasitoid species of various significant pine caterpillars, including Dendrolimus houi Lajonquiere (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae), with great potential for utilization. So far, the mass rearing of K. dendrolimi has been successfully established using Antheraea pernyi (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae)
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Kriechbaumerella dendrolimi (Hymenoptera, Chalcididae) is a dominant pupal parasitoid species of various significant pine caterpillars, including Dendrolimus houi Lajonquiere (Lepidoptera, Lasiocampidae), with great potential for utilization. So far, the mass rearing of K. dendrolimi has been successfully established using Antheraea pernyi (Lepidoptera, Saturniidae) pupae as alternative hosts and released in the forest to suppress D. houi populations. However, the outcome is still expected to be improved due to lower parasitism rates, which might be related to the autonomous immune function of A. pernyi pupae. In our study, we investigated the effects of K. dendrolimi parasitization on the immune responses of A. pernyi pupae by measuring the expression of key immune factors: superoxide dismutase (SOD), polyphenol oxidases (PPOs), Attacin, Lysozymes (LYSs), and serine proteases (PRSSs). Our results show that parasitization significantly upregulated these immune factors, with distinct temporal patterns observable between 4 and 48 h post-parasitization. This upregulation highlights a robust immune response, adapting over time to the parasitic challenge. These findings suggest that specific immune mechanisms in A. pernyi pupae are activated in response to K. dendrolimi, shedding light on potential targets for enhancing host resistance. Metabolomic analyses complemented these findings by illustrating the broader metabolic shifts associated with the immune response. Specifically, Attacin was significantly upregulated twice, hypothesizing that the parasitoid’s venom contains at least two parasitic factors. Metabolomics analysis revealed a significant metabolite difference within parasitized A. pernyi pupae. The highest number of differential expression metabolites (DEMs) was observed at 16 h post-parasitism (1184 metabolites), with fewer DEMs at 8 h (568 metabolites) and 32 h (693 metabolites), suggesting a close relationship between parasitism duration and the number of DEMs. These fluctuations reflected the fundamental process of immune interaction. KEGG enrichment results showed that the DEMs were mainly enriched in energy metabolism and immune-related pathways, indicating that parasitism is a process of continuous consumption and immune interaction in the host. These DEMs could also become future targets for regulating the immune functions of A. pernyi pupae and could provide reference data for optimizing mass-rearing techniques.
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(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Biological Control of Forest Diseases and Pests)
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