Search Results (72)

The construction sector presently consumes about 40% of global energy and generates 36% of CO₂ emissions, making facade retrofits a priority for decarbonising buildings. This review clarifies how ventilated facades (VFs), wall assemblies that interpose a ventilated air cavity between outer cladding and the insulated structure, address that challenge. First, the paper categorises VFs by structural configuration, ventilation strategy and functional control into four principal families: double-skin, rainscreen, hybrid/adaptive and active–passive systems, with further extensions such as BIPV, PCM and green-wall integrations that couple energy generation or storage with envelope performance. Heat-transfer analysis shows that the cavity interrupts conductive paths, promotes buoyancy- or wind-driven convection, and curtails radiative exchange. Key design parameters, including cavity depth, vent-area ratio, airflow velocity and surface emissivity, govern this balance, while hybrid ventilation offers the most excellent peak-load mitigation with modest energy input. A synthesis of simulation and field studies indicates that properly detailed VFs reduce envelope cooling loads by 20–55% across diverse climates and cut winter heating demand by 10–20% when vents are seasonally managed or coupled with heat-recovery devices. These thermal benefits translate into steadier interior surface temperatures, lower radiant asymmetry and fewer drafts, thereby expanding the hours occupants remain within comfort bands without mechanical conditioning. Climate-responsive guidance emerges in tropical and arid regions, favouring highly ventilated, low-absorptance cladding; temperate and continental zones gain from adaptive vents, movable insulation or PCM layers; multi-skin adaptive facades promise balanced year-round savings by re-configuring in real time. Overall, the review demonstrates that VFs constitute a versatile, passive-plus platform for low-carbon buildings, simultaneously enhancing energy efficiency, durability and indoor comfort. Future advances in smart controls, bio-based materials and integrated energy-recovery systems are poised to unlock further performance gains and accelerate the sector’s transition to net-zero. Emerging multifunctional materials such as phase-change composites, nanostructured coatings, and perovskite-integrated systems also show promise in enhancing facade adaptability and energy responsiveness. Full article

Surface all-wave net radiation ($R_n$) is one of the essential parameters to describe surface radiative energy balance, and it is of great significance in scientific research and practical applications. Among various acquisition approaches, the estimation of $R_n$ from satellite data is gaining more and more attention. In order to obtain the daily $R_n$ ($R_{nd}$) from the instantaneous satellite observations, a parameter $C_d$, which is defined as the ratio between the $R_n$ at daily and at instantaneous under clear sky was proposed and has been widely applied. Inspired by the sinusoidal model, a new model for $C_d$ estimation, namely New Model, was proposed based on the comprehensive clear-sky $R_n$ measurements collected from 105 global sites in this study. Compared with existing models, New Model could estimate $C_d$ at any moment during 9:30~14:30 h, only depending on the length of daytime. Against the measurements, New Model was evaluated by validating and comparing it with two popular existing models. The results demonstrated that the $R_{nd}$ obtained by multiplying $C_d$ from New Model had the best accuracy, yielding an overall $R^2$ of 0.95, root mean square error (RMSE) of 14.07 Wm⁻², and Bias of −0.21 Wm⁻². Additionally, New Model performed relatively better over vegetated surfaces than over non- or less-vegetated surfaces with a relative RMSE (rRMSE) of 11.1% and 17.89%, respectively. Afterwards, the New Model $C_d$ estimate was applied with MODIS data to calculate $R_{nd}$. After validation, the $R_{nd}$ computed from $C_d$ was much better than that from the sinusoidal model, especially for the case MODIS transiting only once in a day, with $R_{nd}$-validated $R^2$ of 0.88 and 0.84, RMSEs of 19.60 and 27.70 Wm⁻², and Biases of −0.76 and 8.88 Wm⁻². Finally, more analysis on New Model further pointed out the robustness of this model under various conditions in terms of moments, land cover types, and geolocations, but the model is suggested to be applied at a time scale of 30 min. In summary, although the new $C_d$ model only works for clear-sky, it has the strong potential to be used in estimating $R_{nd}$ from satellite data, especially for those having fine spatial resolution but low temporal resolution. Full article

Earth’s energy imbalance (EEI) is a major indicator of climate change. Its metrics are top of the atmosphere radiation imbalance (EEI TOA) and net internal heat uptake. Both EEI and temperature are expected to respond gradually to forcing on annual timescales. This expectation was tested by analyzing regime changes in the inputs to EEI TOA along with increasing ocean heat content (OHC). Outward longwave radiation (OLR) displayed rapid shifts in three observational and two reanalysis records. The reanalysis records also contained shifts in surface fluxes and temperature. OLR, outward shortwave radiation (OSR) and TOA net radiation (Net) from the CERES Energy Balanced and Filled Ed-4.2.1 (2001–2023) record and from 27 CMIP5 historical and RCP4.5 forced simulations 1861–2100, were also analyzed. All variables from CERES contained shifts but the record was too short to confirm regime changes. Contributions of OLR and OSR to net showed high complementarity over space and time. EEI TOA was −0.47 ± 0.11 W m⁻² in 2001–2011 and −1.09 ± 0.11 W m⁻² in 2012–2023. Reduced OSR due to cloud feedback was a major contributor, coinciding with rapid increases in sea surface temperatures in 2014. Despite widely varying OLR and OSR, 26/27 climate models produced stable regimes for net radiation. EEI TOA was neutral from 1861, shifting downward in the 26 reliable records between 1963 and 1995, with 25 records showing it stabilizing by 2039. To investigate heat uptake, temperature and OHC 1955/57–2023 was analyzed for regime change in the 100 m, 700 m and 2000 m layers. The 100 m layer, about one third of total heat content, was dominated by regimes. Increases became more gradual with depth. Annual changes between the 700 m layer and 1300 m beneath were negatively correlated (−0.67), with delayed oscillations during lag years 2–9. Heat uptake at depth is dynamic. These changes reveal a complex thermodynamic response to gradual forcing. We outline a complex arrangement of naturally evolved heat engines, dominated by a dissipative heat engine nested within a radiative engine. EEI is a property of the dissipative heat engine. This far-from-equilibrium natural engine has evolved to take the path of least resistance while being constrained by its maximum power limit (~2 W m⁻²). It is open to the radiative engine, receiving solar radiation and emitting scattered shortwave and longwave radiation. Steady states maximize entropy within the dissipative engine by regulating spatial patterns in surface variables that influence outgoing OLR and OSR. Regime shifts to warmer climates balance the cost of greater irreversibility with increased energy rate density. The result is the regulation of EEI TOA through a form of thermodynamic metabolism. Full article

This paper presents a detailed analysis of the energy dynamics of the Mediterranean tropical-like cyclone, Medicane Ianos, by using a moist static energy (MSE) budget framework. Medicanes are hybrid cyclonic systems that share characteristics of both extratropical and tropical cyclones, making their classification and prediction challenging. Using high-resolution ERA5 reanalysis data, we analyzed the life cycle of Ianos, which is one of the strongest recorded medicanes, employing the vertically integrated MSE spatial variance budget to quantify the contributions of different energy sources to the cyclone’s development. The chosen study area was approximately 2500² km², covering the entire track of the cyclone. The budget was calculated after tracking Ianos and applying Hart phase space analysis to assess the cyclone phases. The results show that the MSE budget can reveal that the cyclone development was driven by a delicate balance between convection and dynamical factors. The interplay between vertical and horizontal advection, in particular the upward transport of moist air and the lateral inflow of warm, moist air and cold, dry air, was a key mechanism driving the evolution of Ianos, followed by surface fluxes and radiative feedback. By analyzing what process contributes most to the increase in MSE variance, we concluded that Ianos can be assimilated in the tropical framework within a radius of 600 km around the cyclone center, but only during its intense phase. In this way, the budget can contribute as a diagnostic tool to the ongoing debate regarding medicanes classification. Full article

This comprehensive study explores the influence of aerosols and clouds on solar radiation in the urban environments of nine of Greece’s largest cities over the decade from 2014 to 2023. Utilizing a combination of Earth Observation data, radiative transfer models, and geographic information systems, the research undertook digital surface modeling and photovoltaic simulations. The study meticulously calculated the optimal rooftop areas for photovoltaic installation in these cities, contributing significantly to their energy adequacy and achieving a balance between daily electricity production and demand. Moreover, the research provides an in-depth analysis of energy and economic losses, while also highlighting the environmental benefits. These include a reduction in pollutant emissions and a decrease in the carbon footprint, aligning with the global shift towards local energy security and the transformation of urban areas into green, smart cities. The innovative methodology of this study, which leverages open access data, sets a strong foundation for future research in this field. It opens up possibilities for similar studies and has the potential to contribute to the creation of an updated, comprehensive solar potential map for continental Greece. This could be instrumental in climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies, thereby promoting sustainable urban development and environmental preservation. Full article

Surface longwave radiation (SLR) plays a pivotal role in the Earth’s energy balance, influencing a range of environmental processes and climate dynamics. As the demand for high spatial resolution remote sensing products grows, there is an increasing need for accurate SLR retrieval with enhanced spatial detail. This study focuses on the development and validation of models to estimate SLR using measurements from the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) sensor. Given the limitations posed by fewer spectral bands and data products in ASTER compared to moderate-resolution sensors, the proposed approach combines an atmospheric radiative transfer model MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission (MODTRAN) with the Light Gradient Boosting Machine algorithm to estimate SLR. The MODTRAN simulations were performed to construct a representative training dataset based on comprehensive global atmospheric profiles and surface emissivity spectra data. Global sensitivity analyses reveal that key inputs influencing the accuracy of SLR retrievals should reflect surface thermal radiative signals and near-surface atmospheric conditions. Validated against ground-based measurements, surface upward longwave radiation (SULR) and surface downward longwave radiation (SDLR) using ASTER thermal infrared bands and surface elevation estimations resulted in root mean square errors of 17.76 W/m² and 25.36 W/m², with biases of 3.42 W/m² and 3.92 W/m², respectively. Retrievals show systematic biases related to extreme temperature and moisture conditions, e.g., causing overestimation of SULR in hot humid conditions and underestimation of SDLR in arid conditions. While challenges persist, particularly in addressing atmospheric variables and cloud masking, this work lays a foundation for accurate SLR retrieval from high spatial resolution sensors like ASTER. The potential applications extend to upcoming satellite missions, such as the Landsat Next, and contribute to advancing high-resolution remote sensing capabilities for an improved understanding of Earth’s energy dynamics. Full article

In this paper, we have carefully studied the scientific literature dealing with the use of passive radiative surfaces within the construction industry. The aim of this paper is to highlight technologies and materials for daylight radiative cooling under study today—or already on the market—and to report their main characteristics, performance and, where possible, costs. Following a review of the available scientific literature, the advantages and limitations of such an option were highlighted, seeking to capture opportunities and future lines of research development. This review also provides the physical laws that evaluate the energy balance of passive radiative surfaces as well as the criteria to quantify all the terms of these equations. Full article

At an energy flux imbalance of about 1 W m⁻², the ocean stores 90% of the heat accumulating by global warming. However, neither the causes of this nor the responsible geophysical processes are sufficiently well understood. More detailed investigations of the different phenomena contributing to the oceanic energy balance are warranted. Here, the role of low-level marine clouds in the air–sea interaction is analysed. TEOS-10, the International Thermodynamic Equation of State of Seawater—2010, is exploited for a rigorous thermodynamic description of the climatic trends in the lifted condensation level (LCL) of the marine troposphere. Rising sea surface temperature (SST) at a constant relative humidity (RH) is elevating marine clouds, cooling the cloud base, and reducing downward thermal radiation. This LCL feedback effect is negative and counteracts ocean warming. At the current global mean SST of about 292 K, the net radiative heat flux from the ocean surface to the LCL cloud base is estimated to be 24 W m⁻². Per degree of SST increase, this net flux is expected to be enhanced by almost 0.5 W m⁻². The climatic LCL feedback effect is relevant for the ocean’s energy balance and may be rigorously thermodynamically modelled in terms of TEOS-10 equations. LCL height may serve as a remotely measured, sensitive estimate for the sea surface’s relative fugacity, or conventional relative humidity. Full article

Reducing energy consumption in residential and commercial buildings is an important research topic. Thermally activated building systems are a promising technology for significantly reducing energy consumption. The high thermal inertia, large surfaces, and radiative nature are advantages of these systems, but, on the other hand, this makes the system control and design complex. A transient simulation is also required to address the dynamic behavior of the system. The influence of 19 factors (material, design, and operating parameters) on the air temperature and mean radiant temperature inside the room as well as the required cooling equipment power were analyzed to better understand the system. The screening experiment was conducted using the random balance design method, and measurement data were used to validate the resistance–capacitance model. The analysis was performed using the Plackett–Burman design and a design with randomly selected points from a full factorial experiment. The results show that internal heat gains and the inlet water temperature have a significant influence on the system, and the influence of the screed’s properties is insignificant compared to other parameters. It should be borne in mind that the obtained results and conclusions are valid for the assumed range of factors’ variability. Full article

Land surface temperature plays an important role in the water cycle and surface energy balance. Using data collected by a vorticity covariance tower from 2010 to 2022, the relative threshold method and TRM method were employed to study the land–atmosphere exchange of water and the heat flux of rubber forest ecosystems under heatwave and non-heatwave conditions. The results show that the latent heat flux, sensible heat flux, and incoming and outgoing radiation increase from non-heatwave to heatwave conditions. In addition, the multi-year average LST was 6.7 °C higher under HW conditions than under non-HW conditions at the 99% confidence level. Further attribution analysis demonstrates that heatwave-induced land surface temperature change is mainly governed by atmospheric factors rather than by land surface factors. Specifically, radiative forcing shows the largest positive contribution, which is partly offset by the negative contributions of air temperature and relative humidity. In particular, the contributions of radiative forcing, air temperature, relative humidity, and atmospheric pressure to LST were 14.70 K, −4.76 K, −5.86 K, and −0.04 K, respectively. Moreover, surface resistance contributed to LST by 2.42 K, aerodynamic resistance by −0.23 K, and soil heat flux by −0.91 K. Full article

Different aerosol types exhibit distinct radiative effects in different regions, attributed to their unique optical characteristics and regional distributions. This study focuses on North China, which is impacted by both natural and anthropogenic aerosols with high concentrations and a variety of aerosol types. While many studies on aerosol direct radiative effects have been conducted in this region, the majority have focused on a specific type of aerosol or overall aerosol, leaving limited research on the direct radiative effects and contributions of different aerosol types. In this study, we use CALIPSO satellite data from 2011 to 2020 to investigate concentrations and distributions of different aerosol types. The results reveal that dust, polluted dust, polluted continental/smoke, and elevated smoke are the dominant aerosol types in North China. Based on the radiative closure experiment, we systematically calculate the radiative effects of different aerosol types and their corresponding contributions to the energy budget by combining satellite data with the Fu–Liou radiative transfer model. The annual average net aerosol direct radiative effect (ADRE) of North China is −6.1 and −13.43 W m⁻² at the TOA and surface, respectively, causing a net warming effect of 7.33 W m⁻² in the atmosphere. For each main aerosol type, dust contributes 93% to the shortwave ADRE in the western dust source region, while polluted dust mainly contributes 31% and 45% of the total ADRE, in Northwest China and North China Plain, respectively. Anthropogenic pollutant aerosols account for 58% of the total ADRE in Northeast China. This study holds great significance in elucidating the dominant aerosol types and their concentrations in North China, comprehending the impacts of different aerosol types on the local energy balance. Full article

The accurate estimation of land surface temperature (LST) is a vital parameter in various fields, such as hydrology, meteorology, and surface energy balance analysis. This study focuses on the estimation of LST using data acquired from Joint Polar-Orbiting Satellite System (JPSS) satellites, specifically JPSS-1/NOAA-20 and JPSS-2/NOAA-21. The methodology for this research centers on the utilization of the split-window algorithm, a well-established and recognized technique renowned for its proficiency in extracting accurate land surface temperature (LST) values from remotely sensed data. This algorithm leverages the differential behavior of thermal infrared (TIR) radiance measured in two adjacent spectral channels to estimate LST, effectively mitigating the influence of atmospheric distortions on the acquired measurements. To establish the accuracy of the proposed approach, the coefficients of the split-window algorithm were determined using linear regression analysis, utilizing a dataset generated via extensive radiative transfer modeling. The calculated LST values were subsequently compared with LST products provided by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The evaluation process encompassed the computation of root mean square error (RMSE) values, offering insights into the performance of the algorithm for both JPSS-1/NOAA-20 and JPSS-2/NOAA-21 missions. LST retrieval validation with standard atmospheric simulation indicates that the JPSS-1/NOAA-20 and The JPSS-1/NOAA-21 algorithms have demonstrated an accuracy of 1.4 K in retrieval of LST with different errors. The obtained results demonstrate the potential of the split-window algorithm to effectively estimate LST from JPSS satellite data. The RMSE values, 2.05 and 1.71 for JPSS-1/NOAA-20 and JPSS-2/NOAA-21, respectively, highlight the algorithm’s capability to provide accurate LST estimates for different mission datasets. This research contributes to enhancing our understanding of land surface temperature dynamics using remote sensing technology and showcases the valuable insights that can be gained from JPSS missions in monitoring and studying Earth’s surface processes. Full article

China has emerged as one of the global leaders in greening, achieved through human land use management practices, particularly afforestation projects. However, accurately calculating the energy balance processes of vegetated areas remains challenging because of the complexity of physical mechanisms, parameterization schemes, and driving dataset used in current research. In this study, we address these challenges by employing moving window methods in space inspired by “space-for-time”. This approach allows us to eliminate the influence of climate signals on vegetation development over long periods and determine the sensitivity of seasonal contributions of Land Surface Temperature (LST) to Leaf Area Index (LAI) in China from 2001 to 2018. Our findings reveal that the sensitivity of LST to LAI in the climatology period is approximately −0.085 $\mathrm{K}·{\mathrm{m}}^2·{\mathrm{m}}^{-2}$, indicating a cooling effect. Moreover, the climatological trend remains negative, suggesting that Chinese vegetation greening is playing an increasingly important role in cooling the land surface. Considering the energy balance equation, we further investigate the underlying mechanisms. It is observed that the radiative feedback consistently contributes positively, while the non-radiative feedback always exerts a negative influence on the sensitivity. These results provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between vegetation greening and land surface temperature in China, providing informed land management and climate adaptation strategies. Understanding these trends and mechanisms is essential for sustainable and effective environmental planning and decision making. Full article

In this study, an assessment of the FORTH radiative transfer model (RTM) surface solar radiation (SSR) as well as its interdecadal changes (Δ(SSR)), namely global dimming and brightening (GDB), is performed during the 35-year period of 1984–2018. Furthermore, a thorough evaluation of SSR and (Δ(SSR)) is conducted against high-quality reference surface measurements from 1193 Global Energy Balance Archive (GEBA) and 66 Baseline Surface Radiation Network (BSRN) stations. For the first time, the FORTH-RTM Δ(SSR) was evaluated over an extended period of 35 years and with a spatial resolution of 0.5° × 0.625°. The RTM uses state-of-the-art input products such as MERRA-2 and ISCCP-H and computes 35-year-long monthly SSR and GDB, which are compared to a comprehensive dataset of reference measurements from GEBA and BSRN. Overall, the FORTH-RTM deseasonalized SSR anomalies correlate satisfactorily with either GEBA (R equal to 0.72) or BSRN (R equal to 0.80). The percentage of agreement between the sign of computed GEBA and FORTH-RTM Δ(SSR) is equal to 63.5% and the corresponding percentage for FORTH-RTM and BSRN is 54.5%. The obtained results indicate that a considerable and statistically significant increase in SSR (Brightening) took place over Europe, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Central and NW African areas, and some parts of the tropical oceans from the early 1980s to the late 2010s. On the other hand, during the same 35-year period, a strong and statistically significant decrease in SSR (Dimming) occurred over the western Tropical Pacific, India, Australia, Southern East China, Northern South America, and some parts of oceans. A statistically significant dimming at the 95% confidence level, equal to −0.063 Wm⁻² year⁻¹ (or −2.22 Wm⁻²) from 1984 to 2018 is found over the entire globe, which was more prevalent over oceanic than over continental regions (−0.07 Wm⁻² year⁻¹ and −0.03 Wm⁻² year⁻¹, statistically significant dimming at the 95% confidence level, respectively) in both hemispheres. Yet, this overall 35-year dimming arose from alternating decadal-scale changes, consisting of dimming during 1984–1989, brightening in the 1990s, turning into dimming over 2000–2009, and brightening during 2010–2018. Full article

The incident and emitted radiative energy data for the top of the atmosphere (TOA) are essential in climate research. Since East Asia (11–61°N, 80–175°E) is complexly composed of land and ocean, real-time satellite data are used importantly for analyzing the detailed energy budget or climate characteristics of this region. Therefore, in this study, the radiative energy budget for East Asia, during the year 2021, was analyzed using GEO-KOMPSAT-2A/Advanced Metrological Imager (GK-2A/AMI) and the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts reanalysis (ERA5) data. The results showed that the net fluxes for the TOA and surface were −4.09 W·m⁻² and −8.24 W·m⁻², respectively. Thus, the net flux difference of 4.15 W·m⁻² between TOA and surface implied atmospheric warming. These results, produced by GK-2A/AMI, were well-matched with the ERA5 data. However, they varied with surface characteristics; the atmosphere over ocean areas warmed because of the large amounts of longwave radiation emitted from surfaces, while the atmosphere over the plain area was relatively balanced and the atmosphere over the mountain area was cooled because large amount of longwave radiation was emitted to space. Although the GK2A/AMI radiative products used for this study have not yet been sufficiently compared with surface observation data, and the period of data used was only one year, they were highly correlated with the CERES (Clouds and the Earth’s Radiant Energy System of USA), HIMAWARI/AHI (Geostationary Satellite of Japan), and ERA5 data. Therefore, if more GK-2A/AMI data are accumulated and analyzed, it could be used for the analysis of radiant energy budget and climate research for East Asia, and it will be an opportunity to greatly increase the utilization of total meteorological products of 52 types, including radiative products. Full article