Search Results (580)

The photoelectrochemical splitting (PEC) of water provides a direct route to converting solar energy into storable chemical fuels. When illuminated, a semiconductor photoelectrode can absorb light and generate electron-hole pairs, which participate in interfacial redox reactions at the semiconductor-electrolyte junction. Therefore, to achieve high-performance PEC, photoelectrodes with optimized optical absorption and charge have been explored. This review analyzes recent fabrication strategies used to design photoelectrodes for the PEC dissociation of water. Physical fabrication techniques, including pulsed laser deposition, magnetron sputtering, and physical vapor deposition, allow for precise control of film thickness, crystallinity, and defect density, critical parameters for efficient charge transport. Typically, in physical methods, reported photocurrent densities span from ~10⁻² to 10¹ mAcm⁻², depending on the semiconductor material, nanostructure design, and interfacial engineering strategies. Chemical synthesis methods, such as hydrothermal growth, successive ion layer adsorption and reaction, and microemulsion techniques, provide greater compositional flexibility and enable controlled doping, surface functionalization, and the formation of nanostructured morphologies. Finally, hybrid fabrication strategies integrate physical and chemical processes within a single synthesis framework to combine structural precision with compositional tuning capabilities. These approaches enable the development of advanced architecture such as heterojunctions, core–shell nanostructures, and catalyst-modified interfaces, which enhance light absorption and optimize interfacial transfer. Furthermore, theoretical and computational tools are here analyzed as complementary approaches that guide the rational design and optimization of photoelectrochemical materials and devices. Full article

This study investigates the key performance-related fuel properties of emulsifier–diesel solutions and ethanol-in-diesel microemulsions. This work begins with the in situ polymerization of long alkyl chain-substituted glycidyl methacrylate (R-GMA) in diesel and the optional presence of a second methacrylate monomer. The resulting diesel-soluble oligomer functions as a nonionic emulsifier. Controlled amounts of ethanol are subsequently incorporated into the emulsifier–diesel solution to form a stable microemulsion, referred to as E-Diesel. This study examines how the structure of the emulsifier influences key fuel properties, including (i) ethanol–diesel miscibility, (ii) gross calorific value, (iii) Ramsbottom carbon residue (% of fuel), (iv) entrapped polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and (v) fuel lubricity. Both the hydrophilic–hydrophobic balance and the structure of the emulsifier side chains are found to significantly affect these properties. Compared with neat diesel, oligomeric emulsifiers enable the substantial dispersion of ethanol in diesel (up to 18 wt.%). The resulting fuel exhibits a gross calorific value exceeding the theoretical sum of diesel and ethanol at the same composition (a synergistic effect) and achieves an enhancement in lubricity up to 49.5% relative to neat diesel at a 5% emulsifier loading. Although the presence of emulsifiers leads to an increase in the carbon residue by up to 54.7% compared to neat diesel during controlled pyrolysis, it simultaneously reduces the PAH content in the exhaust. Overall, this study establishes fundamental correlations among microemulsion stability, combustion synergy, carbon residue formulation, and fuel lubricity, which are governed by the structure of the emulsifier. Full article

Mesoporous bioactive glass nanoparticles (MBGNs) are promising for bone tissue engineering; however, surgical site infection and oxidative stress often compromise regeneration. To address this, MBGNs co-doped with cerium (Ce), zinc (Zn), and strontium (Sr) were synthesized using a microemulsion-assisted sol-gel route (xCe-yZn-Sr-MBGNs; x = 0, 1, 2; y = 0, 0.5, 1). The resulting spherical nanoparticles (150–200 nm) exhibited a mesoporous structure with a specific surface area of (~340–425 m²/g), sustained ion release, and apatite formation in simulated body fluid. In vitro evaluations with MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblasts demonstrated dose-dependent cytocompatibility, specifically in the co-doped formulations; however, higher Ce concentrations (2Ce-yZn-Sr-MBGNs) reduced viability following prolonged exposure. Crucially, the 1Ce-1Zn-Sr-MBGNs significantly enhanced osteogenic differentiation, as evidenced by a two-fold increase in osteogenic marker gene expression and a ~45% increase in calcium mineral deposition compared to undoped MBGNs within 14 days. Moreover, these particles accelerated cell migration, achieving ~70% scratch-wound closure within 24 h. Furthermore, 1Ce-1Zn-Sr-MBGNs displayed strong radical scavenging capacity and potent antibacterial activity against S. aureus and P. aeruginosa. These findings indicated that 1Ce-1Zn-Sr-MBGNs exhibited multiple therapeutic effects, including antibacterial, radical-scavenging, and osteogenic effects. By optimizing dopant ratios, these multifunctional nanomaterials emerge as promising candidates for next-generation bone grafts or implant coatings. Within the scope of this study, they demonstrated the capacity to simultaneously address three critical challenges in bone healing: controlling infection, mitigating oxidative stress, and promoting mineralized tissue formation. While these in vitro results provide a robust foundation, further in vivo validation is warranted to confirm their efficacy within complex physiological environments. Full article

Zinc (Zn) is a mineral that plays a vital role in the growth and development processes of different plants. Although it is required in small quantities, its presence is essential in a crop. In recent years, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) have garnered significant interest in agriculture due to their unique physical and chemical properties. As a result, they can be used as alternative fertilizers to help crops experiencing mineral deficiency, stress, or fungal problems. These nanomaterials can be obtained through various synthesis methods, including sol–gel, chemical precipitation, microemulsion, and green synthesis, among others. This enables managing their size, shape, and internal arrangement, establishing their ultimate characteristics and feasible uses. In this review, we will present some of the most commonly used synthesis methods for obtaining ZnO NPs, the frequently used characterization techniques, as well as some of the positive and toxic effects caused by their application in crops. Full article

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are submicron colloidal systems widely investigated as drug carriers; however, their intrinsic biodistribution properties are also critical when SLNs are considered for diagnostic imaging. In the present proof-of-concept study, drug-free SLNs were evaluated exclusively as a radiolabeled imaging agent rather than as a drug delivery system. SLNs were radiolabeled with Technetium-99m (^99mTc), and their in vivo biodistribution was investigated using gamma camera imaging, ex vivo organ counting, and confocal microscopy. SLNs were prepared by a microemulsion–low-temperature solidification method and characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Radiolabeling efficiency was determined by instant thin-layer chromatography (ITLC) and exceeded 95%. Following intravenous administration in a rabbit model, dynamic scintigraphic imaging demonstrated predominant uptake in the liver and spleen. These findings were quantitatively confirmed by ex vivo biodistribution analysis at 4 h post-injection and qualitatively supported by confocal microscopy of liver and spleen tissues. The results indicate that ^99mTc-labeled SLNs behave as RES-targeting radiocolloids and may serve as potential agents for liver–spleen scintigraphy. Full article

This study presents a promising strategy for the fabrication of a novel chitosan-based nanogel-in-oil system by integrating the development of a water-in-oil (W/O) microemulsion containing chitosan as a template, followed by crosslinking with genipin, a natural crosslinking agent, via emulsion crosslinking. To develop the W/O microemulsion template, nanometer-sized internal aqueous droplets were successfully formed in cottonseed oil, a vegetable oil, using a blend of nonionic surfactants, polysorbate 80 and sorbitan monooleate. A pseudoternary phase diagram was constructed to investigate the phase behavior of systems composed of chitosan solution, mixed surfactant, and cottonseed oil. Compositions falling within the monophasic region were selected for further formulation optimization. The microemulsions were characterized for droplet size, size distribution, electrical conductivity, and viscosity. The optimal microemulsion exhibited W/O characteristics with the lowest viscosity. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis confirmed the presence of uniformly distributed nanometer-sized droplets, as evidenced by a Z-average diameter of 92.9 ± 2.3 nm and a PDI of 0.100 ± 0.072. The microemulsion system demonstrated physical stability, as confirmed by centrifugal testing. Crosslinking of chitosan with genipin was monitored by fluorescence intensity measurements of the crosslinking products. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy further confirmed the formation of genipin-crosslinked chitosan structure. DLS and transmission electron microscopy revealed that the nanogels possessed nanoscale dimensions and discrete spherical morphologies. Overall, this approach demonstrates a viable route for producing a nanogel-in-oil system by combining microemulsion templating with emulsion crosslinking. Full article

Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) is an agricultural pest of global economic importance. Its ability to reproduce, adapt, and develop resistance necessitates the creation of effective and environmentally friendly alternative control strategies. This study aimed to evaluate the larvicidal activity of three nanoformulations (NFs) based on the essential oil (70% safrole) of Piper auritum Kunth (Piperales: Piperaceae), nanoemulsion (NE), microemulsion (ME), and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), against second-instar larvae of S. frugiperda. The NFs were prepared using a combination of low- and high-energy methods, using Tween 80 and Span 80 as stabilizing agents. The droplet sizes of the NFs ranged from 19 to 48 nm. Stability analysis of the formulations maintained for 60 days in open systems at room temperature allowed the identification of remaining oxidized sesquiterpenes and phenylpropanoids. In in vitro bioassays, the NE demonstrated the highest larvicidal activity, with an LD₅₀ of 0.97 µg cm⁻², outperforming the other formulations by a factor of ten. Observations of morphological damage to larval and pupal tissues, along with deformation of adult specimens, confirming the toxicity of the NFs. These findings highlight the potential of essential oil-based NFs derived from P. auritum as sustainable biopesticides for integrated pest management. Full article

Bismuth vanadate (BiVO₄) has been regarded as a valuable semiconductor material for photocatalytic decomposition of organic pollutants thanks to its narrow band gap and environmental friendliness. However, its practical application is restricted by its small specific surface area, severe photo-generated carrier recombination, and low photocatalytic degradation efficiency. Herein, a microemulsion method followed by a hydrothermal process is developed to prepare a flower-like BiVO₄ microsphere constituted of thin nanosheets. Because of increase in reactive sites, facilitation of photo-induced carrier transfer, and generation of high-activity superoxygen (•O₂⁻) and hydroxyl (•OH) radicals, the photocatalytic degradation efficiency of the flower-like BiVO₄ microparticle (synthesized with a hydrothermal duration of 6 h) for Congo red reaches 86.2% with a high degradation rate constant of 0.0134 min⁻¹. Moreover, the cyclic degradation test proves the reasonable photocatalytic stability of the flower-like BiVO₄ microparticle, showing its great application potential for photocatalytic degradation of organic pollutants. Full article

Pine wilt disease (PWD), caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, is driven by a tri-component system involving the pinewood nematode, Monochamus spp. beetle vectors, and susceptible pine hosts. Chemical control remains a scenario-dependent option for emergency suppression and high-value protection, but its deployment is constrained by strong regional regulatory and practical differences. In Europe (e.g., Portugal and Spain), field chemical control is generally not practiced; post-harvest phytosanitary treatments for wood and wood packaging rely mainly on heat treatment, and among ISPMs only sulfuryl fluoride is listed for wood treatment with limited use. This review focuses on recent progress in PWD chemical control, summarizing advances in nematicide discovery and modes of action, greener formulations and delivery technologies, and evidence-based, scenario-oriented applications (standing-tree protection, vector suppression, and infested-wood/inoculum management). Recent studies highlight accelerated development of target-oriented nematicides acting on key pathways such as neural transmission and mitochondrial energy metabolism, with structure–activity relationship (SAR) efforts enabling lead optimization. Formulation innovations (water-based and low-solvent products, microemulsions and suspensions) improve stability and operational safety, while controlled-release delivery systems (e.g., micro/nanocapsules) enhance penetration and persistence. Application technologies such as trunk injection, aerial/Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) operations, and fumigation/treatment approaches further strengthen scenario compatibility and operational efficiency. Future research should prioritize robust target–mechanism evidence, resistance risk management and rotation strategies, greener formulations with smart delivery, and scenario-based exposure and compliance evaluation to support precise, green, and sustainable integrated control together with biological and other sustainable approaches. Full article

Injecting chemical agents into tree trunks is a key method for preventing pine wilt disease (PWD). However, the long-term use of conventional trunk injection agents such as emamectin benzoate (EB) and avermectin (AVM) may lead to nematode resistance. Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the potential of new-generation nematicides, including fluopyram (FLU) and its compound formulations, as alternatives to EB and AVM in PWD prevention. In this study, four trunk injection agents, i.e., 5% FLU microemulsion (ME), 2% AVM + 6% FLU ME, 5% EB ME, and 5% AVM emulsifiable concentrate (EC), were injected into Pinus massoniana trunks, and their residual dynamics over time and preventive effects on PWD were compared. Results showed that all agents were transported to various parts of the trees within 90 days post-injection, with FLU showing significantly stronger translocation compared with EB and AVM. At 660 days post-injection, the active ingredient levels of 5% FLU ME in apical branches remained significantly higher than those of the other three agents at both tested doses (30 and 60 mL). Artificial inoculation with 10,000 Bursaphelenchus xylophilus nematodes per tree at 90 days post-injection showed that trees injected with 5% FLU ME and 2% AVM + 6% FLU ME had nearly 100% disease prevention rates at both doses, outperforming 5% EB ME and 5% AVM EC. A second nematode inoculation at 480 days post-injection showed that 2% AVM + 6% FLU ME showed 50% efficacy, outperforming 5% EB ME (25% efficacy). These findings offer a foundation for developing alternative trunk injection strategies for future PWD management in China. Full article

A facile and single-step synthesis of poly(L-Cysteine) (p(L-Cys)) particles through microemulsion polymerization using tetrakis(hydroxymethyl) phosphonium chloride (THPC) as crosslinker is accomplished for the first time. The L-Cys:THPC ratio in p(L-Cys) particles was calculated as 80:20% (by weight) with elemental analyses, and the generation of p(L-Cys) particles was confirmed. SEM imaging revealed a popcorn-like morphology of the p(L-Cys) particles with a 1–20 µm particle size range. The isoelectric point of p(L-Cys) particles was determined at pH 1.15 via zeta potential measurements. The hydrolytic degradation of p(L-Cys) particles was determined as about 85% within 3 h (by weight). The p(L-Cys) particles displayed excellent blood compatibility with a hemolysis % ratio of <2.3% and a blood clotting index of 95% at 1 mg/mL concentration. Moreover, cell compatibility tests up to 50 mg/mL against L929 fibroblast cells exhibited about 90% cell viability for p(L-Cys) particles versus 58% for L-Cys molecule. The antimicrobial efficacy of the L-Cys molecules was notably enhanced in p(L-Cys) particles, exhibiting a 5-fold reduction in minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) values against E. coli (Gram-negative, ATCC 8739) and a 2-fold reduction against S. aureus (Gram-positive, ATCC 6538). Additionally, the antioxidant capacity of p(L-Cys) particles was retained somewhat, measured as 0.14 ± 0.01 µM versus 2.25 ± 0.03 µM Trolox equivalent/g for L-Cys. Therefore, p(L-Cys) particles are versatile and offer a unique avenue for immense biomedical use. Full article

Supramolecular nanoparticles offer an efficient strategy to enhance the solubility, stability, and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble therapeutic molecules. In this study, water-dispersible SNPs were successfully prepared from dicarboxyl-bis-pillar[5]arene (H) and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) using a microemulsion method. Dynamic light scattering revealed that the resulting CTAB/H nanoparticles possessed a size distribution centered around 40 nm, a positive surface charge (+15 mV), and exhibited high colloidal stability over three months. ¹H NMR, 2D TOCSY, 2D NOESY, diffusion ordered NMR spectroscopy, and UV-Vis investigations confirmed the inclusion of the CTAB alkyl chain within the pillar[5]arene cavity, supporting the formation of stable supramolecular assemblies capable of efficiently encapsulating the poorly water-soluble flavonol quercetin (Q). The CTAB/H system displayed low cytotoxicity (up to 50 µg/mL) and pronounced antioxidant activity, as evidenced by DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. Quercetin-loaded nanoparticles (CTAB/H/Q) enhanced cellular uptake and exhibited a marked cytoprotective effect against H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress in NIH-3T3 fibroblasts. Full article

The study investigates the performance of polyethersulfone (PES) ultrafiltration (UF) membranes modified with a coating of polymerizable bicontinuous microemulsion (PBM) for membrane bioreactor (MBR) applications. Two types of PBM-modified PES membranes—casting-coated and spray-coated—were compared with a commercial PES membrane. A laboratory side-stream MBR (ssMBR) was employed to treat model wastewater (MW) with activated sludge under aerobic conditions. The fouling propensity of the membranes in ssMBR was evaluated through the implementation of two protocols: (i) flux-step test to treat low-strength domestic model wastewater (DMW) and (ii) constant flux test to treat high-strength olive mill model wastewater (OMW). The findings indicated that both the commercial PES and PBM spray-coated PES membranes started to critically foul at 36 L m⁻² h⁻¹. The PBM spray-coated membranes showed enhanced fouling resistance in comparison to the PBM casting-coated membranes. The deposition of the biofouling layer was the thinnest on PBM spray-coated membranes, which can be attributed to the low surface charge and high hydrophilicity of the modified membrane surface. In contrast, deposition of a thicker fouling layer was found on the commercial PES membrane, which can be attributed to the relatively higher surface charge promoting organic adsorption. A comparison of the fouling trends exhibited by commercial PES and PBM spray-coated membranes in OMW treatment revealed that they have similar fouling tendencies. However, a notable distinction emerged when the PBM spray-coated membrane was observed to demonstrate a lower fouling propensity accompanied by comparatively thinner fouling layers. The results demonstrate that the PBM spray-coated membranes have enhanced fouling resistance and filtration efficacy in MBRs treating wastewater with diverse strengths, thereby affirming their potential for application in wastewater treatment systems. Full article

The development of advanced macromolecular systems with tailored structural and functional properties is a key objective in modern materials science, particularly for biomedical applications such as targeted drug delivery. In this study, hydrogel (HG), a polymer-based formulation, was investigated as a functional carrier for the enhanced intradermal and transdermal delivery of propranolol hydrochloride (PRO-HCl), a highly water-soluble model compound, and its potential was compared to other vehicles easily obtained by pharmacists: ointment (OM), liposomal cream (LCR), and microemulsion (ME). The formulations were characterized by their physicochemical and rheological characteristics, and evaluated in vitro and ex vivo using vertical diffusion cells equipped with synthetic membranes, intact porcine skin, and skin pretreated with solid microneedles (MNs). The HG formulation exhibited superior release performance (2396.85 ± 48.18 μg/cm²) and the highest intradermal drug deposition (19.87 ± 4.12 μg/cm²), while its combination with MNs significantly enhanced transdermal permeation (p = 0.0017). In contrast, the synergistic effect of MNs and ME led to a pronounced increase in drug accumulation within the skin (up to 60.3-fold). These findings highlight the crucial role of matrix composition and properties in modulating molecular transport through biological barriers. The study demonstrates that polymeric HGs represent versatile, functional materials with tunable structural and mechanical features, suitable for controlled release and potential systemic delivery applications. Full article

The development of polymer-based systems is central to the design of next-generation drug delivery carriers, as polymers enable versatile tuning of physicochemical properties and responsiveness. In this work, we introduce a 3D printing-based strategy for the fabrication of multicompartment capsules that integrate multiple polymers within a unique one-step process. This approach allows precise spatial organization and structural complexity, yielding capsules with customizable features such as compartmentalization, polymer-specific responsiveness, and localized release control. In particular, pH-triggered release can be programmed across distinct polymeric regions of the capsules, enabling site-specific delivery along different intestinal segments, including the small intestine and colon. The use of 3D printing thus provides a scalable and adaptable platform to generate multifunctional polymer-based carriers with finely tunable drug release profiles, paving the way for new directions in polymer-enabled controlled delivery technologies. Full article