Search Results (65)

Background/Objectives: Capsaicin is the principal pungent compound in chili peppers and is increasingly recognized as a multifunctional phytochemical with systemic effects beyond its sensory properties. It has been linked to metabolic regulation, neuroprotection, inflammation control, and cancer modulation. This review aims to provide an integrative synthesis of capsaicin’s metabolism, its interaction with the gut microbiome, and its physiological implications across organ systems. Methods: We conducted a critical literature review of recent in vivo and in vitro studies exploring capsaicin’s metabolic fate, biotransformation by host enzymes and gut microbes, tissue distribution, and molecular pathways. The literature was analyzed thematically to cover gastrointestinal absorption, hepatic metabolism, microbiota interactions, and systemic cellular responses. Results: Capsaicin undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism, producing hydroxylated and dehydrogenated metabolites that differ in transient receptor potential vanilloid type 1 (TRPV1) receptor affinity and tissue-specific bioactivity. It crosses the blood–brain barrier, alters neurotransmitter levels, and accumulates in brain regions involved in cognition. In addition to its systemic effects, capsaicin appears to undergo microbial transformation and influences gut microbial composition, favoring short-chain fatty acid producers and suppressing pro-inflammatory taxa. These changes contribute to anti-obesity, anti-inflammatory, and potentially anticancer effects. Dose-dependent adverse outcomes, such as epithelial damage or tumor promotion, have also been observed. Conclusions: Capsaicin represents a diet-derived bioactive molecule whose systemic impact is shaped by dynamic interactions between host metabolism and the gut microbiota. Clarifying its biotransformation pathways and context-specific effects is essential for its safe and effective use in metabolic and neurological health strategies. Full article

Background/Objectives: The aim of the present study was to develop nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC)-filled hydrogel beads for the delivery of curcumin in functional foods. Methods: Curcumin-loaded NLC-filled hydrogel beads based on calcium alginate were developed using the extrusion method. Various preparation parameters, physicochemical characteristics, gastrointestinal fates, and antioxidant bioactivities were studied to confirm the feasibility of this delivery system. Results: Curcumin-loaded NLCs were successfully filled into hydrogel beads with an encapsulation efficiency above 80%. The stability test displayed that the stability of curcumin encapsulated within NLCs was further enhanced when the NLCs were filled into beads. During in vitro digestion, the lipolysis rate of the lipid matrix and the release rate of curcumin encapsulated in NLCs were adjusted by the hydrogel beads. The ex vivo intestinal permeation study indicated that the intestinal permeation of curcumin from the digestion products of curcumin-loaded NLC-hydrogel beads, prepared with appropriate alginate concentrations (0.5% and 1%), was significantly enhanced compared to that of curcumin-loaded NLCs. Furthermore, the digestion products of curcumin-loaded NLC-hydrogel beads (1% alginate) exhibited significantly enhanced antioxidant bioactivity compared to those of curcumin-loaded NLCs. Conclusions: This study demonstrated that NLC-hydrogel beads might be a promising delivery system for hydrophobic bioactive compounds in functional food systems. Full article

Baking leavening agents and fermentation conditions may influence the gastrointestinal fate of nutrients in baked goods, thereby affecting their bioavailability. This study aimed to evaluate the digestibility of sourdough pizza fermented with lactic acid bacteria species (Levilactobacillus brevis, Fructilactobacillus sanfranciscensis, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides) and yeast, compared to traditional pizza fermented with baker′s yeast. The effects of leavening time (up to 48 h) and microbial leavening agents on the nutritional profile and digestibility of baked pizzas were investigated by examining the microbiological and physico-chemical changes in the doughs, with a particular focus on the sugar content. Additionally, the degree of protein hydrolysis and the levels of FODMAPs (fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides, and polyols) were quantified on the cooked pizzas both before and after in vitro gastrointestinal digestion. In vitro protein digestibility was not significantly influenced by the type of microbial leavening agent used or fermentation time. However, extended fermentation, particularly with lactic acid bacteria sourdough, resulted in a notable decrease in FODMAPs, thereby enhancing the digestibility and overall health profile of the pizza for individuals sensitive to these compounds. Future research should further explore the mechanisms behind these changes and their implications for dietary recommendations. Full article

Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) plays a signaling role in the body. Numerous studies demonstrated that H₂O₂, generated mainly by autoxidation of polyphenols, ascorbate and other reduced compounds, is a common component of beverages such as honey, tea, coffee, formulated drinks and alcoholic beverages, and is generated in cooked vegetables. It is produced in fresh milk predominantly by xanthine oxidase. The antimicrobial action of honey depends mainly on H₂O₂ generated by glucose oxidase and polyphenol autoxidation. Many components of beverages and food scavenge generated H₂O_2, so its level is a result of the balance between generation and scavenging. This review discusses the mechanisms of hydrogen peroxide formation, collects evidence for the presence and generation of H₂O₂ in beverages and food, discusses its fate in the gastrointestinal tract, evolutionary aspects of human exposure to alimentary hydrogen peroxide, and both adverse action and possible beneficial effects of the consumed hydrogen peroxide. Full article

BG136, a β-1,3/1,6-glucan derived from Durvillaea antarctica, is an injectable anticancer drug and has entered Phase II clinical trials. Rational oral formulation design is a pivotal focus for our future drug development research; therefore, elucidating the gastrointestinal fate of BG136 becomes imperative. This study investigated the stability and biotransformation of BG136 via in vitro digestion and gut microbiota fermentation. The results confirmed BG136’s structural integrity, resistance to degradation in a highly acid environment and by gastrointestinal tract enzymes. In contrast, BG136 was degraded by intestinal bacteria into mid-size fragments along with smaller oligosaccharides. Additionally, the biotransformation process notably elevated total short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) to 38.37 ± 3.29 mM, representing a 59.4% increase versus controls (24.08 ± 2.29 mM), with propionic acid exhibiting the most substantial increase. Meanwhile, the process was accompanied by significant microbial regulation, including an increase in beneficial genera (Lactobacillus, Enterococcus) and a reduction in Lachnoclostridium populations. Overall, these findings systematically map the oral bioavailability challenges and prebiotic potential of BG136, highlighting its microbiota-modulating capacity through species-specific ecological regulation, providing insights into oral drug development for BG136. Full article

Olive leaf, an abundant and underutilized byproduct of the olive industry, has gained attention as a potential functional ingredient due to its high content of dietary fiber and phenolic compounds. However, little is known about its bioaccessibility and transformation throughout the digestive process, limiting its application in food formulations. This study provides a comprehensive and quantitative assessment of how ground olive leaf bioactive compounds behave during gastrointestinal digestion, offering new insights into their stability and potential health benefits. The total phenolics content and antioxidant activity of ground olive leaf increased in the oral and gastric phases, decreasing slightly in the intestinal phase, with a bioaccessibility of 46% and up to 70% for the total phenolic content and antioxidant activity, respectively. The principal individual phenolic compounds identified in the intestinal phase were oleuropein, luteolin-7-glycoside, luteolin-6-glycoside and ferulic acid, with bioaccessibilities of up to 97%. The main soluble sugars (fructose, glucose, and sucrose) and organic acids (succinic, citric, and acetic acids) detected in the olive leaf samples showed different behaviors during gastrointestinal digestion: sugars increased in the oral and gastric phases but decreased in the intestinal phase, with high bioaccessibility despite reduced recovery, while organic acids remained mostly stable, except for citric acid, which decreased significantly in the intestinal phase, all showing close to 100% bioaccessibility. These results provide the first detailed evidence of the digestive fate of ground olive leaf bioactive compounds, reinforcing its potential as a functional ingredient. Its natural availability, without requiring pre-treatment, combined with its high antioxidant potential and bioaccessibility, highlights its relevance for the development of innovative food ingredients, aligning with circular economy principles and sustainable food strategies. Full article

The rapid development of nanotechnology provides new approaches to manufacturing food-related nanoparticles in various food industries, including food formulation, functional foods, food packaging, and food quality control. Once ingested, nanoparticles will immediately adsorb proteins in the biological fluids, forming a corona around them. Protein coronas alter the properties of nanoparticles, including their toxicity, cellular uptake, and targeting characteristics, by altering the aggregation state. In addition, the conformation and function of proteins and enzymes are also influenced by the formation of protein coronas, affecting the digestion of food products. Since the inevitable application of nanoparticles in food industries and their subsequent digestion, a comprehensive understanding of protein coronas is essential. This systematic review introduces nanoparticles in food and explains the formation of protein coronas, with interactions between proteins and nanoparticles. Furthermore, the potential origin of nanoparticles in food that migrate from packaging materials and their fates in the gastrointestinal tract has been reviewed. Finally, this review explores the possible effects of protein coronas on bioactive compounds, including probiotics and prebiotics. Understanding the formation mechanisms of protein coronas is crucial, as it enables the design of tailored delivery systems to optimize the bioavailability of bioactive compounds. Full article

Many pharmaceutical active compounds are prepared as hydrochlorides for quick release in the gastrointestinal tract upon oral administration. Their inadvertent escape into the water environment requires efficient analytical separation for accurate quantitation to monitor their environmental fate. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate how best to optimize a capillary electrophoresis method for the separation of four model pharmaceutical hydrochlorides. Concentration of sodium dibasic phosphate in the background electrolyte solution, pH adjustment with HCl or NaOH, and applied voltage across the capillary were the three key factors chosen for optimization. The peak resolutions and total migration time were examined as the response indicators to complete a central composite design in response surface methodology. The examination revealed that CE separation was driven significantly by a linear regression model and minimally by a quadratic regression model, based on the coefficient of determination, the lack of fit, the total sum of squares, and the p values. Under optimal conditions of the background electrolyte concentration of 75 mM, pH 9, and the applied voltage of 10 kV, the model hydrochlorides were separated within five minutes in the migration order of metformin (first) > phenformin > mexiletine > ranitidine (last). The limits of UV detection/quantification attained under optimal CE conditions were 0.015/0.045, 0.020/0.060, 0.142/0.426, and 0.017/0.051, respectively. Full article

The evisceration of infested species on board commercial fleets and the throwing of viscera into the sea, as is mostly the case for hake, is common practice for reducing the occurrence of Anisakis in fishery products. Moreover, the high levels of infestation and the lack of technically and economically feasible solutions hinder the possibility of recovering viscera with other fish processing byproducts as raw material for feed without the risk of transmission of allergens to humans, with the subsequent risk for public health. The aim of this work was to study the fate of Anisakis simplex allergens during 11 days of silage of infested hake (Merluccius merluccius) viscera, as a potential method for eliminating this risk. While the viscera were almost completely liquefied, an increase in the allergenicity of the soluble fraction was observed, which decreased only slightly after day 9. As we are aware of the resistance of parasite allergens to gastrointestinal enzymes, silage was also analyzed after 12 and 15 months. While the lower molecular weight fragments of Anisakis proteins are fully digested, some larger fragments with potential allergenicity resisted autolysis after long silage periods, but they were present in a very low concentration. The study concludes that there is the potential of silage as a method for recovering fish viscera infested with Anisakis. Full article

Dietary microRNAs (miRs) represent a new area in food science. Although they have been found in many foods, including honey, more research is needed about their stability and fate during digestion. Hence, this study aimed to analyze the digestive stability of two selected miRs in honey. We extracted miR-92a-3p and miR-30c-5p from pasteurized and unpasteurized forms of polyfloral honey using two different methods and kits: a column-based manual method and a phenol-free semi-automated magnetic-bead-based method. The latter option was used for the subsequent analysis of samples according to the INFOGEST static in vitro digestion protocol. Also, the honey samples were examined for exosome-like particles using dynamic light scattering. Although the expression levels of both miRs were significantly lower following intestinal digestion, we found a difference in the resilience of the miRs to gastrointestinal conditions, with miR-30c-5p being relatively stable compared to miR-92a-3p following digestion, regardless of the honey’s pasteurization treatment. Moreover, there was marked heterogeneity in the extracellular vesicle profile of the pasteurized sample. We identified the presence of two broadly conserved miRs in honey: miR-92a-3p and miR-30c-5p. Despite honey exhibiting high digestibility, miR-92a-3p was less resilient than miR-30c-5p, demonstrating considerable resistance under gastrointestinal conditions. Although further research is needed, the results obtained from this study may represent a starting point for utilizing honey as a source of exogenous miRNAs for preventive strategies and more “natural” treatments. Full article

Flaxseed has been recognized as a superfood worldwide due to its abundance of diverse functional phytochemicals and nutrients. Various studies have shown that flaxseed consumption is beneficial to human health, though methods of processing flaxseed may significantly affect the absorption and metabolism of its bioactive components. Hence, flaxseed was subjected to various processing methods including microwaving treatment, microwave-coupled dry milling, microwave-coupled wet milling, and high-pressure homogenization. In vitro digestion experiments were conducted to assess the impact of these processing techniques on the potential gastrointestinal fate of flaxseed oil. Even though more lipids were released by the flaxseed at the beginning of digestion after it was microwaved and dry-milled, the full digestion of flaxseed oil was still restricted in the intestine. In contrast, oil droplets were more evenly distributed in wet-milled flaxseed milk, and there was a greater release of fatty acids during simulated digestion (7.33 ± 0.21 μmol/mL). Interestingly, wet-milled flaxseed milk showed higher oxidative stability compared with flaxseed powder during digestion despite the larger specific surface area of its oil droplets. This study might provide insight into the choice of flaxseed processing technology for better nutrient delivery efficiency. Full article

The fate of phenolic compounds during digestion is important for their bioactive effects in the digestive tract. The aim was to study the various phenolic compounds occurring in the peel and flesh of apples in in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion, focusing on the behavior of chlorogenic acids. Additionally, the behavior of individual chlorogenic acids (chlorogenic, neochlorogenic, and cryptochlorogenic) was studied in models of simulated salivary, gastric, and intestinal fluid electrolyte solutions (SSF, SGF, SIF). At the end of the intestinal phase of the digestion of peel and flesh, the amount of recovered dihydrochalcones and flavonols increased or was similar to the amount in the gastric phase, which showed their stability. Anthocyanins and flavan-3-ols decreased, which suggests their biotransformation. Chlorogenic acid isomerized into neochlorogenic and cryptochlorogenic acid: chlorogenic acid from the peel into 22% and 41% of the isomers in the salivary and intestinal phases, respectively; chlorogenic acid from the flesh into 12% of the isomers in the intestinal phase. Similarly, chlorogenic acid isomerized in model solutions (20% and 26% of the isomers in SSF and SIF, respectively). Neochlorogenic and cryptochlorogenic acid isomerized in SSF and SIF into other two forms. They were all stable in SGF. For bioactive effects in the digestive tract, the biotransformation of chlorogenic acids should be considered. Full article

The global protein demand is constantly on the increase, requiring sustainable and healthier protein alternatives for animal and human nutrition. Yeast-based proteins (YBPs) represent a non-negligible environmentally friendly fermentation-based solution with high nutritional quality and bioavailability. Although in vitro studies cannot reflect the full complexity of in vivo digestion, they are considered a useful alternative to animal models in assessing protein digestibility. Herein, TIM-1 (TNO gastro-intestinal model) was used to assess the digestibility profile of a proprietary edible YBP according to INFOGEST guidelines. We characterized the YBP’s digestibility and amino acid bio-accessibility and compared the YBP with milk-based references (casein and whey proteins). Each treatment was evaluated in triplicate during 5 h of digestion with hourly collection from jejunum and ileum compartments and final residual stomachal samples. Total nitrogen and free amino acid (FAA) were quantified. Size-exclusion chromatography and SDS-PAGE were also applied to assess the fate of protein hydrolysis over time. This study showed that all proteins were fully hydrolyzed upon one hour of digestion. YBPs were as good as milk-based references in terms of digestibility and small intestine absorption, reaching up to 60% of total bio-accessible protein after 5 h. Noteworthy, total YBP absorption followed a kinetics closer to that of whey protein in jejunum and ileum compartments. Our results are in line with a previous in vivo evaluation of YBPs where fecal N digestibility, PDCAAS, and DIAAS were evaluated. Altogether, our results suggest that YBPs could be a nutritionally relevant animal protein alternative. Full article

Echinacea purpurea L. (EP) preparations are globally popular herbal supplements known for their medicinal benefits, including anti-inflammatory activities, partly related to their phenolic composition. However, regarding their use for the management of inflammation-related intestinal diseases, the knowledge about the fate of orally ingested constituents throughout the human gastrointestinal tract and the exposition of in vitro digested extracts in relevant inflammatory models are unknown. This study investigated for the first time the impact of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (INFOGEST) on the phenolic composition and anti-inflammatory properties of EP extracts from flowers (EF), leaves (EL), and roots (ER) on IL-1β-treated human colon-derived CCD-18Co cells. Among the seven hydroxycinnamic acids identified using HPLC-UV-MS/MS, chicoric and caftaric acids showed the highest concentrations in EL, followed by EF and ER, and all extracts exerted significant reductions in IL-6, IL-8, and PGE₂ levels. After digestion, despite reducing the bioaccessibility of their phenolics, the anti-inflammatory effects were preserved for digested EL and, to a lesser extent, for EF, but not for digested ER. The lower phenolic content in digested EF and ER could explain these findings. Overall, this study emphasizes the potential of EP in alleviating intestinal inflammatory conditions and related disorders. Full article

Bacillus subtilis has been used for more than 50 years in many different industrial applications, including farming, precision fermentation, and probiotic supplements. It is particularly attractive as a probiotic because of its ability to form shelf-stable, acid-resistant spores that lend to diverse applications in the food system. B. subtilis is the most ubiquitous species of the genus and can be isolated from a broad variety of environments including animal and human gastrointestinal (GI) tracts. This is a comprehensive review of human intervention studies utilizing B. subtilis as a probiotic for supporting gastrointestinal health, as well as the reported impacts of B. subtilis use on the human gut microbiota and other biomarkers of health. It briefly covers the fate of ingested spores in the GI tract, summarizes the observed effects of different probiotic B. subtilis strains, and offers a perspective for the continued and future uses of B. subtilis in human applications. Full article