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91 Results Found

  • Article
  • Open Access
10 Citations
2,821 Views
11 Pages

28 July 2023

Because of the intermittent nature of renewable energy sources, such as solar or wind power, energy storage is becoming strategic for securing the energy transition. In this context, energy storage technologies must become robust, secure, and efficie...

  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,823 Views
11 Pages

Engineering Improvement of the Core Layers of Charge Trapping Flash Memory Based on Doped HfO2 and Segmented Fabrication

  • Kexiang Wang,
  • Jie Lu,
  • Zeyang Xiang,
  • Zixuan Wang,
  • Huilin Jin,
  • Ranping Li and
  • Ran Jiang

An engineering approach was applied to modify the core layers of charge-trapping flash (CTF) memory—the blocking layer, charge-trapping layer, and tunneling layer. The doping of Ti in the charge-trapping layer and the use of Si-doped HfO2 for t...

  • Article
  • Open Access
12 Citations
3,722 Views
15 Pages

Charge Storage and Reliability Characteristics of Nonvolatile Memory Capacitors with HfO2/Al2O3-Based Charge Trapping Layers

  • Dencho Spassov,
  • Albena Paskaleva,
  • Elżbieta Guziewicz,
  • Wojciech Wozniak,
  • Todor Stanchev,
  • Tsvetan Ivanov,
  • Joanna Wojewoda-Budka and
  • Marta Janusz-Skuza

9 September 2022

Flash memories are the preferred choice for data storage in portable gadgets. The charge trapping nonvolatile flash memories are the main contender to replace standard floating gate technology. In this work, we investigate metal/blocking oxide/high-k...

  • Review
  • Open Access
13 Citations
5,508 Views
21 Pages

30 August 2023

The requirements for ever-increasing volumes of data storage have urged intensive studies to find feasible means to satisfy them. In the long run, new device concepts and technologies that overcome the limitations of traditional CMOS-based memory cel...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
1,996 Views
12 Pages

A Novel High-Performance Anode Material with an Enlarged Potential Window for a Hybrid Energy Storage System

  • Abdul Mateen,
  • Muhammad Zubair,
  • Muhammad Saleem,
  • Alexandra Golubenkova,
  • Leonid Voskressensky,
  • Asma A. Alothman,
  • Mohamed Ouladsmane,
  • Awais Ahmad and
  • Muhammad Sufyan Javed

16 December 2022

Cobalt-iron (CoFe) layered double hydroxides (LDHs) have received much interest for supercapacitors (SCs) because of their ion-insertable layer structure. However, there is still a need for more effort to increase their potential window and overall e...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
2,550 Views
14 Pages

17 December 2021

The trend across the whole of society is to focus on natural and/or biodegradable materials such as cellulose (Cell) over synthetic polymers. Among other usage scenarios, Cell can be combined with electroactive components such as multiwall carbon nan...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
3,415 Views
17 Pages

Radiation Tolerance and Charge Trapping Enhancement of ALD HfO2/Al2O3 Nanolaminated Dielectrics

  • Dencho Spassov,
  • Albena Paskaleva,
  • Elżbieta Guziewicz,
  • Vojkan Davidović,
  • Srboljub Stanković,
  • Snežana Djorić-Veljković,
  • Tzvetan Ivanov,
  • Todor Stanchev and
  • Ninoslav Stojadinović

10 February 2021

High-k dielectric stacks are regarded as a promising information storage media in the Charge Trapping Non-Volatile Memories, which are the most viable alternative to the standard floating gate memory technology. The implementation of high-k materials...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
7 Citations
3,040 Views
19 Pages

ProDOT-Based Polymers: From Energy Storage to Smart Window Applications

  • Adriana-Petronela Chiriac,
  • Catalin-Paul Constantin and
  • Mariana-Dana Damaceanu

9 May 2023

Nowadays, electroactive materials based on conjugated polymers for energy storage and electrochromic window applications attract large interest due to their low cost, accessible synthetic procedures, and interesting electrochemical properties. Herein...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
1,213 Views
13 Pages

Nonvolatile Organic Floating-Gate Memory Using N2200 as Charge-Trapping Layer

  • Wenting Zhang,
  • Junliang Shang,
  • Shuang Li,
  • Hu Liu,
  • Mengqi Ma and
  • Dongping Ma

20 February 2025

In this work, floating-gate organic field-effect transistor memory using the n-type semiconductor poly-{[N,N′-bis(2-octyldodecyl) naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis (dicarbo- ximide)-2,6-dili]-alt-5,5′-(2,2′-bithiophene)} (N2200) as a charge-t...

  • Review
  • Open Access
3 Citations
6,406 Views
21 Pages

Importance of High-Concentration Electrolytes for Lithium-Based Batteries

  • Susanna Krämer,
  • Dominik Weintz,
  • Martin Winter,
  • Isidora Cekic-Laskovic and
  • Mariano Grünebaum

Each battery cell consists of three main components: the anode, the cathode, and the separator soaked with liquid electrolyte, the medium in the battery that allows charged ions to move between the two electrodes. Besides a wide electrochemical stabi...

  • Article
  • Open Access
551 Views
11 Pages

High-Performance Multilevel and Ambipolar Nonvolatile Organic Transistor Memory Using Small-Molecule SFDBAO and PS as Charge Trapping Elements

  • Lingzhi Jin,
  • Wenjuan Xu,
  • Yangzhou Qian,
  • Tao Ji,
  • Kefan Wu,
  • Liang Huang,
  • Feng Chen,
  • Nanchang Huang,
  • Shu Xing and
  • Zhen Shao
  • + 3 authors

10 July 2025

Organic nonvolatile transistor memories (ONVMs) using a hybrid spiro [fluorene-9,7′-dibenzo [c, h] acridine]-5′-one (SFDBAO)/polystyrene (PS) film as bulk-heterojunction-like tunneling and trapping elements were fabricated. From the chara...

  • Article
  • Open Access
12 Citations
4,934 Views
16 Pages

A method for estimating the stack rating of vanadium redox flow batteries (VRFBs) through constant power characterization was developed. A stack of 22 cells, each with 1500 cm2 of nominal electrode area, was constructed and tested using constant curr...

  • Review
  • Open Access
14 Citations
4,900 Views
24 Pages

Recent Advances in Flexible Resistive Random Access Memory

  • Peng Tang,
  • Junlong Chen,
  • Tian Qiu,
  • Honglong Ning,
  • Xiao Fu,
  • Muyun Li,
  • Zuohui Xu,
  • Dongxiang Luo,
  • Rihui Yao and
  • Junbiao Peng

21 September 2022

Flexible electronic devices have received great attention in the fields of foldable electronic devices, wearable electronic devices, displays, actuators, synaptic bionics and so on. Among them, high-performance flexible memory for information storage...

  • Article
  • Open Access
8 Citations
3,351 Views
8 Pages

3D NAND Flash Memory Based on Double-Layer NC-Si Floating Gate with High Density of Multilevel Storage

  • Xinyue Yu,
  • Zhongyuan Ma,
  • Zixiao Shen,
  • Wei Li,
  • Kunji Chen,
  • Jun Xu and
  • Ling Xu

18 July 2022

As a strong candidate for computing in memory, 3D NAND flash memory has attracted great attention due to the high computing efficiency, which outperforms the conventional von-Neumann architecture. To ensure 3D NAND flash memory is truly integrated in...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
2,479 Views
14 Pages

Broadening the Voltage Window of 3D-Printed MXene Micro-Supercapacitors with a Hybridized Electrolyte

  • Xin Jiang,
  • Haowen Jia,
  • Xuan Chen,
  • Jiajia Li,
  • Yanling Chen,
  • Jin Jia,
  • Guangzhen Zhao,
  • Lianghao Yu,
  • Guang Zhu and
  • Yuanyuan Zhu

20 March 2024

The burgeoning demand for miniaturized energy storage devices compatible with the miniaturization trend of electronic technologies necessitates advancements in micro-supercapacitors (MSCs) that promise safety, cost efficiency, and high-speed charging...

  • Article
  • Open Access
1 Citations
7,389 Views
9 Pages

7 August 2015

This paper presents a novel TaN-Al2O3-HfSiOx-SiO2-silicon (TAHOS) nonvolatile memory (NVM) design with dipole engineering at the HfSiOx/SiO2 interface. The threshold voltage shift achieved by using dipole engineering could enable work function adjust...

  • Feature Paper
  • Article
  • Open Access
2 Citations
1,803 Views
27 Pages

A Feasibility Study of Profiting from System Imbalance Using Residential Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure

  • Marián Tomašov,
  • Milan Straka,
  • Dávid Martinko,
  • Peter Braciník and
  • Ľuboš Buzna

28 November 2023

Residential chargers are going to become the standard in the near future. Their operational cycles are closely tied to users’ daily routines, and the power consumption fluctuates between zero and peak levels. These types of installations are pa...

  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
2,702 Views
13 Pages

Preparation of Remote Plasma Atomic Layer-Deposited HfO2 Thin Films with High Charge Trapping Densities and Their Application in Nonvolatile Memory Devices

  • Jae-Hoon Yoo,
  • Won-Ji Park,
  • So-Won Kim,
  • Ga-Ram Lee,
  • Jong-Hwan Kim,
  • Joung-Ho Lee,
  • Sae-Hoon Uhm and
  • Hee-Chul Lee

1 June 2023

Optimization of equipment structure and process conditions is essential to obtain thin films with the required properties, such as film thickness, trapped charge density, leakage current, and memory characteristics, that ensure reliability of the cor...

  • Article
  • Open Access
9 Citations
3,005 Views
11 Pages

30 May 2023

MXene has drawn widespread attention as a potential material for electrode use in capacitive deionization (CDI). However, the applications of MXene are limited by its property of low electrical capacity. Herein, a MnO2/MXene composite was firstly eva...

  • Article
  • Open Access
958 Views
11 Pages

Investigating Floating-Gate Topology Influence on van der Waals Memory Performance

  • Hao Zheng,
  • Yusang Qin,
  • Caifang Gao,
  • Junyi Fang,
  • Yifeng Zou,
  • Mengjiao Li and
  • Jianhua Zhang

27 April 2025

As a critical storage technology, the material selection and structural design of flash memory devices are pivotal to their storage density and operational characteristics. Although van der Waals materials can potentially take over the scaling roadma...

  • Article
  • Open Access
12 Citations
2,729 Views
12 Pages

23 July 2022

Aqueous zinc-ion batteries offer the greatest promise as an alternative technology for low-cost and high-safety energy storage. However, the development of high-performance cathode materials and their compatibility with aqueous electrolytes are major...

  • Review
  • Open Access
2 Citations
2,143 Views
48 Pages

Advancements in Electrochromic Technology for Multifunctional Flexible Devices

  • Alice Marciel,
  • Joel Borges,
  • Luiz Pereira,
  • Rui F. Silva and
  • Manuel Graça

23 June 2025

The design and investigation of electrochromic devices have advanced significantly, including distinct applications such as self-charged smart windows, aerospace interactive windows, low power flexible and ecofriendly displays, automatic dimming rear...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,105 Views
17 Pages

Water/N,N-Dimethylacetamide-Based Hybrid Electrolyte and Its Application to Enhanced Voltage Electrochemical Capacitors

  • Aleksandra A. Mroziewicz,
  • Karolina Solska,
  • Grażyna Zofia Żukowska and
  • Magdalena Skunik-Nuckowska

The growing interest in hybrid (aqueous–organic) electrolytes for electrochemical energy storage is due to their wide stability window, improved safety, and ease of assembly that does not require a moisture-free atmosphere. When it comes to app...

  • Communication
  • Open Access
14 Citations
2,473 Views
11 Pages

Reversible Hydrogen Storage Media by g-CN Monolayer Decorated with NLi4: A First-Principles Study

  • Xihao Chen,
  • Wenjie Hou,
  • Fuqiang Zhai,
  • Jiang Cheng,
  • Shuang Yuan,
  • Yihan Li,
  • Ning Wang,
  • Liang Zhang and
  • Jie Ren

7 February 2023

A two-dimensional graphene-like carbon nitride (g-CN) monolayer decorated with the superatomic cluster NLi4 was studied for reversible hydrogen storage by first-principles calculations. Molecular dynamics simulations show that the g-CN monolayer has...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
1,803 Views
12 Pages

Design of Hollow Porous P-NiCo2O4@Co3O4 Nanoarray and Its Alkaline Aqueous Zinc-Ion Battery Performance

  • Zhe Liang,
  • Chenmeng Lv,
  • Luyao Wang,
  • Xiran Li,
  • Shiwen Cheng and
  • Yuqiu Huo

25 October 2023

Alkaline aqueous zinc-ion batteries possess a wider potential window than those in mildly acidic systems; they can achieve high energy density and are expected to become the next generation of energy storage devices. In this paper, a hollow porous P-...

  • Review
  • Open Access
20 Citations
8,245 Views
42 Pages

MXene as Promising Anode Material for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Comprehensive Review

  • Mohammad Nezam Uddin Chy,
  • Md. Arafat Rahman,
  • Jin-Hyuk Kim,
  • Nirjhor Barua and
  • Wasif Abu Dujana

31 March 2024

Broad adoption has already been started of MXene materials in various energy storage technologies, such as super-capacitors and batteries, due to the increasing versatility of the preparation methods, as well as the ongoing discovery of new members....

  • Article
  • Open Access
12 Citations
4,649 Views
22 Pages

Reducing the Computational Cost for Artificial Intelligence-Based Battery State-of-Health Estimation in Charging Events

  • Alessandro Falai,
  • Tiziano Alberto Giuliacci,
  • Daniela Anna Misul and
  • Pier Giuseppe Anselma

2 November 2022

Powertrain electrification is bound to pave the way for the decarbonization process and pollutant emission reduction of the automotive sector, and strong attention should hence be devoted to the electrical energy storage system. Within such a framewo...

  • Article
  • Open Access
15 Citations
3,206 Views
17 Pages

11 June 2022

In this study, α-MnO2 and Fe2O3 nanomaterials are prepared on a carbon fiber modified with carbon nanotubes to produce the nonbinder core–shell positive (α-MnO2@CNTs/CC) and negative (Fe2O3@CNTs/CC) electrodes that can be operated i...

  • Article
  • Open Access
6 Citations
3,983 Views
19 Pages

Inspired by the practice of urban distribution of fresh products, we introduce a new electric vehicle routing problem with soft time windows. In this problem, goods with different temperature layers can be distributed in ordinary electric vehicles si...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
1,930 Views
13 Pages

8 November 2023

The design of well-defined hierarchical free-standing electrodes for robust high-performance energy storage is challenging. We report herein that azo-linkage redox metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) incorporate single-walled carbon nanotubes (CNTs...

  • Article
  • Open Access
41 Citations
3,946 Views
22 Pages

Bio-Based Plasticized PVA Based Polymer Blend Electrolytes for Energy Storage EDLC Devices: Ion Transport Parameters and Electrochemical Properties

  • Shujahadeen B. Aziz,
  • Muaffaq M. Nofal,
  • M. F. Z. Kadir,
  • Elham M. A. Dannoun,
  • Mohamad A. Brza,
  • Jihad M. Hadi and
  • Ranjdar M. Abdullah

16 April 2021

This report shows a simple solution cast methodology to prepare plasticized polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)/methylcellulose (MC)-ammonium iodide (NH4I) electrolyte at room temperature. The maximum conducting membrane has a conductivity of 3.21 × 10−3 S/cm. I...

  • Article
  • Open Access
788 Views
15 Pages

Electrical Characteristics of Mesh-Type Floating Gate Transistors for High-Performance Synaptic Device Applications

  • Soyeon Jeong,
  • Jaemin Kim,
  • Hyeongjin Chae,
  • Taehwan Koo,
  • Juyeong Chae and
  • Moongyu Jang

23 July 2025

Nanoparticle floating gate (NPFG) transistors have gained attention as synaptic devices due to their discrete charge storage capability, which minimizes leakage currents and enhances the memory window. In this study, we propose and evaluate a mesh-ty...

  • Review
  • Open Access
37 Citations
6,751 Views
17 Pages

The Importance of Optical Fibres for Internal Temperature Sensing in Lithium-ion Batteries during Operation

  • Markus S. Wahl,
  • Lena Spitthoff,
  • Harald I. Muri,
  • Asanthi Jinasena,
  • Odne S. Burheim and
  • Jacob J. Lamb

17 June 2021

Lithium-ion batteries (LiBs) are widely used as energy storage systems (ESSs). The biggest challenge they face is retaining intrinsic health under all conditions, and understanding internal thermal behaviour is crucial to this. The key concern is the...

  • Article
  • Open Access
16 Citations
2,570 Views
15 Pages

Machine-Learning-Based Prediction of HVAC-Driven Load Flexibility in Warehouses

  • Farzad Dadras Javan,
  • Italo Aldo Campodonico Avendano,
  • Behzad Najafi,
  • Amin Moazami and
  • Fabio Rinaldi

16 July 2023

This paper introduces a methodology for predicting a warehouse’s reduced load while offering flexibility. Physics-based energy simulations are first performed to model flexibility events, which involve adjusting cooling setpoints with controlle...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
3,704 Views
9 Pages

In this work, we present a pentacene-based organic field-effect transistor memory (OFETM) device, which employs one-step microwave-assisted hydrothermal carbon quantum dots (CQDs) embedded in a polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) matrix, to form an integrate...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,230 Views
10 Pages

Uniform Oxide Layer Integration in Amorphous IGZO Thin Film Transistors for Enhanced Multilevel-Cell NAND Memory Performance

  • Zeyang Xiang,
  • Kexiang Wang,
  • Jie Lu,
  • Zixuan Wang,
  • Huilin Jin,
  • Ranping Li,
  • Mengrui Shi,
  • Liuxuan Wu,
  • Fuyu Yan and
  • Ran Jiang

20 March 2024

In this work, the implementation of HfZrO layers for the tunneling, charge trapping, and blocking mechanisms within the device offer benefits in terms of programmability and data retention. This configuration has resulted in a memory device that can...

  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
2,849 Views
13 Pages

Excellent Energy Storage Performance in Bi(Fe0.93Mn0.05Ti0.02)O3 Modified CaBi4Ti4O15 Thin Film by Adjusting Annealing Temperature

  • Tong Liu,
  • Wenwen Wang,
  • Jin Qian,
  • Qiqi Li,
  • Mengjia Fan,
  • Changhong Yang,
  • Shifeng Huang and
  • Lingchao Lu

22 February 2022

Dielectric capacitors with ultrahigh power density are highly desired in modern electrical and electronic systems. However, their comprehensive performances still need to be further improved for application, such as recoverable energy storage density...

  • Article
  • Open Access
3 Citations
1,441 Views
16 Pages

Preparation of Silver Molybdate-Decorated Reduced Graphene Oxide Nanocomposite Using Ionic Liquids for High-Performance Energy Storage Application: A Greener Approach

  • Catherin Meena Boominathan,
  • Zouhaier Aloui,
  • Manickam Selvaraj,
  • Annasaheb V. Moholkar,
  • Chelliah Koventhan,
  • An-Ya Lo and
  • Yi-Jen Huang

24 January 2025

Achieving high energy density while maintaining high power density and long cycle life in supercapacitors, particularly in supercapatteries (SCs), through a thermally stable, greener ionic liquid approach remains a significant challenge for an advanc...

  • Article
  • Open Access
16 Citations
4,773 Views
22 Pages

22 November 2019

Supercapacitors have the rapid charge/discharge kinetics and long stability in comparison with various batteries yet undergo low energy density. Theoretically, square dependence of energy density upon voltage reveals a fruitful but challenging engine...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
2,726 Views
12 Pages

1 March 2022

The purpose of this investigation was the development of a new colloidal route for the fabrication of Mn3O4 electrodes for supercapacitors with enhanced charge storage performance. Mn3O4-carbon nanotube electrodes were fabricated with record-high cap...

  • Article
  • Open Access
493 Views
12 Pages

Modelling of Battery Energy Storage Systems Under Real-World Applications and Conditions

  • Achim Kampker,
  • Benedikt Späth,
  • Xiaoxuan Song and
  • Datao Wang

24 October 2025

Understanding the degradation behavior of lithium-ion batteries under realistic application conditions is critical for the design and operation of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS). This research presents a modular, cell-level simulation framewor...

  • Article
  • Open Access
4 Citations
3,521 Views
12 Pages

Active Carbon-Based Electrode Materials from Petroleum Waste for Supercapacitors

  • Abdualilah Albaiz,
  • Muhammad Alsaidan,
  • Abdullah Alzahrani,
  • Hassan Almoalim,
  • Ali Rinaldi and
  • Almaz S. Jalilov

28 December 2022

A supercapacitor is an energy-storage device able to store and release energy at fast rates with an extended cycle life; thus, it is used in various electrical appliances. Carbon materials prepared above 800 °C of activation temperatures are gene...

  • Article
  • Open Access
13 Citations
5,116 Views
10 Pages

High-Performance Non-Volatile InGaZnO Based Flash Memory Device Embedded with a Monolayer Au Nanoparticles

  • Muhammad Naqi,
  • Nayoung Kwon,
  • Sung Hyeon Jung,
  • Pavan Pujar,
  • Hae Won Cho,
  • Yong In Cho,
  • Hyung Koun Cho,
  • Byungkwon Lim and
  • Sunkook Kim

24 April 2021

Non-volatile memory (NVM) devices based on three-terminal thin-film transistors (TFTs) have gained extensive interest in memory applications due to their high retained characteristics, good scalability, and high charge storage capacity. Herein, we re...

  • Article
  • Open Access
89 Citations
6,435 Views
16 Pages

14 October 2019

Conducting polymers and carbon-based materials such as graphene oxide (GO) and activated carbon (AC) are the most promising capacitive materials, though both offer charge storage through different mechanisms. However, their combination can lead to so...

  • Article
  • Open Access
55 Citations
4,637 Views
21 Pages

Poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA)-based solid polymer electrolytes doped with ammonium thiocyanate (NH4SCN) and glycerol were fabricated using a solution casting method. Lithium-based energy storage devices are not environmentally friendly materials, and th...

  • Review
  • Open Access
16 Citations
4,327 Views
38 Pages

Supercapacitors have emerged as one of the promising energy storage systems owing to their rapid charge/discharge capability, long-term cycling stability, and high power density. The application of core-shell nanostructures for supercapacitors is one...

  • Article
  • Open Access
7 Citations
1,861 Views
11 Pages

Zinc-ion hybrid capacitors (ZICs) can achieve high energy and power density, ultralong cycle life, and a wide operating voltage window, and they are widely used in wearable devices, portable electronics devices, and other energy storage fields. The d...

  • Article
  • Open Access
5 Citations
1,928 Views
14 Pages

Trimodal Watch-Type Wearable Health Monitoring Device

  • Shanthala Lakshminarayana,
  • Mrudula Ranganatha,
  • Hyusim Park and
  • Sungyong Jung

11 October 2024

In the domain of healthcare, wearable health monitoring devices have emerged as essential tools for the advancement of patient health tracking. These devices facilitate the provision of real-time medical data to clinicians, enabling early diagnosis,...

  • Article
  • Open Access
408 Views
23 Pages

24 September 2025

Electrochemical energy storage technology, primarily lithium-ion batteries, has been widely applied in large-scale energy storage systems. However, differences in assembly structures, manufacturing processes, and operating environments introduce para...

  • Article
  • Open Access
19 Citations
3,857 Views
23 Pages

Characteristics of Glycerolized Chitosan: NH4NO3-Based Polymer Electrolyte for Energy Storage Devices with Extremely High Specific Capacitance and Energy Density Over 1000 Cycles

  • Shujahadeen B. Aziz,
  • M. A. Brza,
  • Iver Brevik,
  • M. H. Hamsan,
  • Rebar T. Abdulwahid,
  • S. R. Majid,
  • M. F. Z. Kadir,
  • Sarkawt A. Hussen and
  • Ranjdar M. Abdullah

17 November 2020

In this work, plasticized polymer electrolyte films consisting of chitosan, ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3) and glycerol for utilization in energy storage devices was presented. Various microscopic, spectroscopic and electrochemical techniques were used to...

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