MDPI - Publisher of Open Access Journals

15 pages, 1374 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Strain-Specific Responses of Trichoderma spp. in Mycoparasitism, Chitinase Activity, and Volatiles Production Against Moniliophthora spp.

by María F. Garcés-Moncayo, Christian A. Romero, Simón Pérez-Martínez, Carlos Noceda, Luís L. Galarza and Daynet Sosa del Castillo

Microorganisms 2025, 13(7), 1499; https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms13071499 - 27 Jun 2025

Viewed by 437

Abstract

Moniliophthora roreri (MR, frosty pod rot) and M. perniciosa (MP, witches’ broom disease) pose critical threats to cacao production in Latin America. This study explores the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma spp. strains against these pathogens through exploratory analysis of mycoparasitism, chitinolytic activity, and [...] Read more.

Moniliophthora roreri (MR, frosty pod rot) and M. perniciosa (MP, witches’ broom disease) pose critical threats to cacao production in Latin America. This study explores the biocontrol potential of Trichoderma spp. strains against these pathogens through exploratory analysis of mycoparasitism, chitinolytic activity, and volatile organic compound (VOC) production. Dual-culture assays revealed species-specific antagonism, but C2A/C4B showed a dual-pathogen efficacy (>93% of Monioliopthora inhibition). Chitinase activity revealed C4A/C1 strains as exceptional producers (72 mg/mL NAGA vs. MR and 94 mg/mL vs. MP, respectively). GC-MS analysis identified pathogen-modulated VOC dynamics: hexadecanoic acid dominated in 80% Trichoderma solo-cultures (up to 26.65% peak area in C3B). MP showed 18.4-fold higher abundance of hexadecanoic acid than MR (0.23%). In 90% of dual-culture with MR and MP, HDA was detected as the most abundant. Functional specialization was evident. C4A and C1 prioritized chitinase production growing on MR and MP cell walls (respectively), whereas C9 excelled in antifungal hexadecanoic acid synthesis in confrontation with both pathogens. Complementary strengths among strains—enzymatic activity in C4A/C4B versus volatile-mediated inhibition in C9—suggest niche partitioning, supporting a consortium-based approach for robust biocontrol. This study provides preliminary evidence for the biocontrol potential of several Trichoderma strains, showing possible complementary modes of action. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Beneficial Microbiota in Sustainable Agriculture)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2631 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Description and Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum kapreanum sp. nov, a Cherelle Wilt Pathogen Belonging to the Gigasporum Species Complex

by Yoshiki Takata, Celynne Ocampo-Padilla, Mike Andre C. Malonzo, Dan Charlie Joy Camara Pangilinan, Shunsuke Nozawa and Kyoko Watanabe

J. Fungi 2024, 10(3), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10030204 - 8 Mar 2024

Viewed by 2138

Abstract

Similar to cacao pod rot, cherelle wilt decreases production from cacao fields. Among all known fungal pathogens of the cacao, Colletotrichum spp. are common infectious agents that affect the cherelles and pods of cacao; thus, cacao diseases are often classified by stage. Therefore, [...] Read more.

Similar to cacao pod rot, cherelle wilt decreases production from cacao fields. Among all known fungal pathogens of the cacao, Colletotrichum spp. are common infectious agents that affect the cherelles and pods of cacao; thus, cacao diseases are often classified by stage. Therefore, knowing whether these pathogens are common in both fruit stages is necessary for implementing disease control measures. Symptoms of cherelle wilt were found in cacao plants in Pangasinan, Philippines, in 2022. The fungal strain obtained from the lesion was found to be pathogenic towards cherelles, but not towards pods. The strain was classified as an unknown species belonging to the gigasporum species complex, based on the morphological and molecular phylogenetic analyses of ITS, GAPDH, CHS1, ACT, and TUB2. We propose Colletotrichum kapreanum sp. nov. as a causal agent of cacao cherelle wilt, but not pod rot. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Fungal Pathogenesis and Disease Control)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 5046 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fungal Pathogens of Cacao in Puerto Rico

by Alina Sandra Puig

Plants 2023, 12(22), 3855; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12223855 - 15 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2895

Abstract

Cacao production is a rapidly expanding industry in Puerto Rico, with new farmers planting ~20,000 trees in the past few years. To determine the etiology and extent of diseases affecting cacao in Puerto Rico, a survey was performed at eight sites around the [...] Read more.

Cacao production is a rapidly expanding industry in Puerto Rico, with new farmers planting ~20,000 trees in the past few years. To determine the etiology and extent of diseases affecting cacao in Puerto Rico, a survey was performed at eight sites around the island. Pod rot and/or branch dieback were observed at all sites. Most organisms isolated from symptomatic pod and stem samples were identified as Diaporthe spp. (48%) and Lasiodiplodia spp. (25%) based on sequences of the internal transcribed spacer and large subunit regions. Within these genera, Diaporthe tulliensis and Lasiodiplodia theobromae were the most prevalent species and were used in inoculation studies to determine their relative virulence on pods and stems. Phytophthora palmivora served as a positive control due to its well-established pathogenicity in all tissues. On pods, L. theobromae and P. palmivora caused significantly larger lesions (6.1 and 5.9 cm, respectively) than D. tulliensis (2.7 cm) four days post-inoculation. All three species caused disease on stems, with no differences found among species. Although P. palmivora was thought to be the primary pathogen affecting cacao in Puerto Rico, this study identifies L. theobromae and D. tulliensis as the common pathogens on the island. This improved understanding will help scientists and farmers control disease by selecting fungicides effective against both oomycetes and fungi. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Research of Plant Fungal Disease)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 6657 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Paenibacillus sp. NMA1017 Application as a Biocontrol Agent for Phytophthora tropicalis and Moniliophthora roreri in Cacao-Growing Fields in Chiapas, Mexico

by Irene Gómez-de la Cruz, Belén Chávez-Ramírez, Carlos Hugo Avendaño-Arrazate, Yolanda Elizabeth Morales-García, Jesús Muñoz-Rojas and Paulina Estrada-de los Santos

Plants 2023, 12(12), 2336; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12122336 - 15 Jun 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2268

Abstract

In Mexico, cacao production is endangered by pathogenic fungi, such as Phytophthora spp. and Moniliophthora rorei, that cause black pod rot and moniliasis, respectively. In this study the biocontrol agent Paenibacillus sp. NMA1017 was tested in cacao fields against the previous diseases. The [...] Read more.

In Mexico, cacao production is endangered by pathogenic fungi, such as Phytophthora spp. and Moniliophthora rorei, that cause black pod rot and moniliasis, respectively. In this study the biocontrol agent Paenibacillus sp. NMA1017 was tested in cacao fields against the previous diseases. The treatments applied were shade management, inoculation of the bacterial strain with or without an adherent, and use of chemical control. The statistical analysis showed that the incidence of black pod rot in tagged cacao trees diminished when the bacterium was applied (reduction of 44.24 to 19.11%). The same result was observed with moniliasis when the pods were tagged (reduction of 66.6 to 27%). The use of Paenibacillus sp. NMA1017 with an integrated management might be a solution to cacao diseases and to having a sustainable production of cacao in Mexico. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microbial Formulations to Increase Crop Production, from Laboratory to Fields)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development of a Method for Detecting and Estimating Moniliophthora roreri Spore Loads Based on Spore Traps and qPCR

by Diana L. Jiménez-Zapata, Manuela Quiroga-Pérez, Manuela Quiroz-Yepes, Alejandro Marulanda-Tobón, Javier C. Álvarez and Sandra Mosquera-López

J. Fungi 2023, 9(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9010047 - 28 Dec 2022

Viewed by 2533

Abstract

Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri, is the most damaging disease of cacao in Latin America and, to better comprehend its epidemiology, we must understand its dissemination and proliferation. However, we do not know how M. roreri spores loads fluctuate in [...] Read more.

Frosty pod rot, caused by Moniliophthora roreri, is the most damaging disease of cacao in Latin America and, to better comprehend its epidemiology, we must understand its dissemination and proliferation. However, we do not know how M. roreri spores loads fluctuate in time and space due to the lack of a reliable technique to quantify M. roreri spores in the fields. Therefore, we developed a method that relies on spore traps and qPCR to detect and quantify M. roreri spore loads. This study demonstrated that the qPCR protocol can detect down to 0.025 ng of M. roreri DNA and quantify between 0.006 ng and 60 ng. Moreover, it demonstrated that qPCR protocol can detect and quantify DNA extracted from spore suspension and spore traps containing at least 2.9 × 10⁴ M. roreri spores. However, the variability of the estimates for spore samples was high. Finally, we described a spore-trap device designed to carry spore traps in the field. The qPCR protocol and spore-trap device here developed will help in the understanding of the M. roreri dissemination patterns since they can be used to assess the environmental loads of M. roreri spore in cacao fields. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diagnosis of Plant Pathogenic Fungi and Oomycetes and Plant Breeding for Disease Resistance)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

14 pages, 1749 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of the Ricinodendron heudelotii × Theobroma cacao L. Interaction in Traditional Agroforestry Systems in Côte d’Ivoire

by Jean-Claude N’Zi, Jean-Parfait Kouadio Brou, Alban Antoine Kacou M’Bo, Wenceslas Affessi, Henri Kouadio Kouassi and Christophe Kouame

Horticulturae 2023, 9(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae9010026 - 23 Dec 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2793

Abstract

The objective of this study was to improve cacao (Theobroma cacao) production through its association with a woody species, such as Ricinodendron heudelotii, in western Côte d’Ivoire. To do this, a design of two transects (10 m and 20 m) [...] Read more.

The objective of this study was to improve cacao (Theobroma cacao) production through its association with a woody species, such as Ricinodendron heudelotii, in western Côte d’Ivoire. To do this, a design of two transects (10 m and 20 m) was installed around the species in 5 localities (Buyo, Duekoué, Guéyo, San-Pedro, and Soubré). The diameter at the breast height of the tree, the height, the number of fruits, the above biomass, and its carbon stock were measured. Results showed morphological variability of R. heudelotii according to the localities. The presence of the species within cacao trees reduces the rate of pod rot, stabilizes the rate of pods eaten away, and increases the biomass production and the carbon storage of cacao trees. The distance between the two species had no impact on the vigor and the yield of cacao trees. However, cacao density in the 10 m line was reduced compared to that of the 20 m. Therefore, the integration of R. heudelotii into cacao agroforestry systems could improve cacao production. That is why the reduction of cacao density, as well as the use of more suitable varieties of cacao, should be considered for the sustainability of this system. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

12 pages, 2512 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phylogenetic Affinity in the Potential Antagonism of Trichoderma spp. against Moniliophthora roreri

by Santos Leiva, Karol Rubio, Jorge R. Díaz-Valderrama, Milagros Granda-Santos and Leonor Mattos

Agronomy 2022, 12(9), 2052; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12092052 - 28 Aug 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3626

Abstract

Frosty pod rot, caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri, is one of the most important diseases of cacao in Peru. Sustainable alternatives to control it include timely cultural practices such as pruning, and the application of biological control agents such as Trichoderma [...] Read more.

Frosty pod rot, caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri, is one of the most important diseases of cacao in Peru. Sustainable alternatives to control it include timely cultural practices such as pruning, and the application of biological control agents such as Trichoderma spp. We isolated 234 Trichoderma strains native to the department of Amazonas in Northern Peru from soil samples in cacao farms. These strains belong to at least eighteen species within four phylogenetic clades in the genus (Harzianum, Longibrachiatum, Hamatum, and Brevicompactum clades). We aimed to assess the in vitro biocontrol potential of these strains against M. roreri. We evaluated their mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and potential antagonism to select candidate strains for efficient biocontrol of M. roreri. We found evidence (Kruskal–Wallis test, p < 0.005) that strains belonging to the Harzianum clade tend to have higher mycoparasitism, antibiosis, and potential antagonism levels than strains in the Longibrachiatum and Hamatum clades. Additionally, this study constitutes the first report for antagonistic behavior against M. roreri for T. parareesei, T. lentiforme, T. orientale, T. asperelloides, T. inhamatum, T. zelobreve, T. afarasin, T. ghanense, T. rifaii, and T. breve. These results will be foundational for further M. roreri biocontrol studies. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

13 pages, 2179 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multiple Introductions of Moniliophthora roreri from the Amazon to the Pacific Region in Ecuador and Shared High Azoxystrobin Sensitivity

by Fernando Espinoza-Lozano, Darlyn Amaya-Márquez, C. Miguel Pinto, Mirian Villavicencio-Vásquez, Daynet Sosa del Castillo and Simón Pérez-Martínez

Agronomy 2022, 12(5), 1119; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12051119 - 6 May 2022

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3724

Abstract

One of the main problems in the production of cacao in Ecuador is the disease caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot) which affects the pods. Here, we evaluate the genetic diversity of this fungus in Ecuador, and its sensitivity to [...] Read more.

One of the main problems in the production of cacao in Ecuador is the disease caused by the fungus Moniliophthora roreri (frosty pod rot) which affects the pods. Here, we evaluate the genetic diversity of this fungus in Ecuador, and its sensitivity to the fungicide azoxystrobin. We evaluated 76 monosporic cultures from the Amazon and the Pacific coast regions. In vitro sensitivity assays tested several doses of the fungicide azoxystrobin to determine the percent of growth inhibition and the IC₅₀. Concentrations of 1 to 0.1 µg mL⁻¹ inhibited the growth of at least 91% of the isolates. Three isolates were the less sensitive (IC₅₀ = 0.0220–0.0364 µg mL⁻¹), two from Guayas (Pacific coast) and one from Sucumbíos (Amazon) provinces. However, M. roreri is highly sensitive, and it could be used in integrated management of the disease. Genetic analyses were carried out by amplifying microsatellite markers (SSR). All the genetic diversity statistics show a higher diversity in the Amazon compared to samples of the coast region; however, the molecular variance was low (F_ST = 0.11). Discriminant analysis clearly distinguishes three clusters concurrent with the provinces (Sucumbíos, Orellana and El Oro) and a group with the rest of the provinces. Minimum spanning networks shows, unexpectedly, that M. roreri from the coast were derived from at least three independent introductions from the Amazon. Findings are discussed in light of previous Pan-American genetic studies and available historical reports. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Pest and Disease Management)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

5 pages, 536 KiB

Open AccessProceeding Paper

Effect of Cacao Black Pod Rot Screening Method on Disease Reaction Determination

by Alina S. Puig, Brian Irish, Tomás Ayala-Silva, Sarah Wurzel and Osman Gutierrez

Chem. Proc. 2022, 10(1), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/IOCAG2022-12215 - 10 Feb 2022

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4265

Abstract

Black pod rot, caused by several species of Phytophthora, is responsible for greater losses than any other disease affecting cacao. Breeders use various approaches to screen material for resistance to Phytophthora spp., however, the method used to assess disease reaction can influence [...] Read more.

Black pod rot, caused by several species of Phytophthora, is responsible for greater losses than any other disease affecting cacao. Breeders use various approaches to screen material for resistance to Phytophthora spp., however, the method used to assess disease reaction can influence outcomes. To determine how screening methods affect results, disease reactions of four cacao clones (BE 10, HY 271419, RIM 15 [MEX], and EET 236 [ECU]) were compared using incidence under field conditions, and lesion area following artificial inoculation. Disease incidence differed significantly among clones (p < 0.0007), ranging from 6.1% for BE 10 to 24.0% for HY 271419. Differences among clones were also detected based on lesion area (p < 0.032), however, their relative ranking differed: BE 10 (53.9 cm²), HY 271419 (80.64 cm²), RIM 15 [MEX] (95.7 cm²), and EET 236 [ECU] (102.4 cm²). These apparent differences observed in disease reaction among clones when comparing methods may be due to interactions with environmental conditions or differences in the pathogen species/isolates present. The improved understanding of the how screening methods used can affect the disease reaction determination and breeding outcomes in cacao germplasm will benefit breeders and farmers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Proceedings of The 1st International Online Conference on Agriculture—Advances in Agricultural Science and Technology)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 1534 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Observations on the Potential of an Endophytic Fungus Associated with Cacao Leaves against Phytophthora palmivora

by Joan P. Sadoral and Christian Joseph R. Cumagun

Microbiol. Res. 2021, 12(3), 528-538; https://doi.org/10.3390/microbiolres12030037 - 22 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5109

Abstract

A study was conducted to test the pathogenicity of an endophytic fungus associated with asymptomatic cacao leaves, to determine its identity through cultural, morphological and molecular characterization, and to evaluate itsantagonistic ability vs. Phytophthora palmivora causing cacao black pod rot disease. Experiments were [...] Read more.

A study was conducted to test the pathogenicity of an endophytic fungus associated with asymptomatic cacao leaves, to determine its identity through cultural, morphological and molecular characterization, and to evaluate itsantagonistic ability vs. Phytophthora palmivora causing cacao black pod rot disease. Experiments were carried out under laboratory and shade house conditions. Homogeneity of variances and normal data distribution were determined using Bartlett’s and Shapiro–Wilk tests, respectively. Inoculation of the endophyte in healthy cacao seedlings and pods at 5 × 10⁵ to 1 × 10⁶ conidia per mL by spraying resulted in asymptomatic infections. The endophyte was recovered from artificially inoculated tissues 14 and 26 days after inoculation (DAI) (UF18 seedlings), and at 10 (K9 seedlings) and 14 DAI from cacao pods. The endophyte was identified as Colletotrichum siamense based on its cultural, morphological and molecular characteristics. In vitroanti-pathogen assays showed that C. siamense had the potential to limit pathogen growth by antibiosis. At 3, 5 and 7 days after incubation period (DAIP), growth of the pathogen in co-cultivation with the endophyte measured 60.0, 70.0 and 71.0 mm, respectively, which wasconsiderably lower than the growth of the pathogen alone. Full article

► Show Figures

Figure 1

20 pages, 1666 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phytophthora palmivora–Cocoa Interaction

by Francine Perrine-Walker

J. Fungi 2020, 6(3), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/jof6030167 - 9 Sep 2020

Cited by 36 | Viewed by 12152

Abstract

Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) is an hemibiotrophic oomycete capable of infecting over 200 plant species including one of the most economically important crops, Theobroma cacao L. commonly known as cocoa. It infects many parts of the cocoa plant including the pods, causing black pod [...] Read more.

Phytophthora palmivora (Butler) is an hemibiotrophic oomycete capable of infecting over 200 plant species including one of the most economically important crops, Theobroma cacao L. commonly known as cocoa. It infects many parts of the cocoa plant including the pods, causing black pod rot disease. This review will focus on P. palmivora’s ability to infect a plant host to cause disease. We highlight some current findings in other Phytophthora sp. plant model systems demonstrating how the germ tube, the appressorium and the haustorium enable the plant pathogen to penetrate a plant cell and how they contribute to the disease development in planta. This review explores the molecular exchange between the oomycete and the plant host, and the role of plant immunity during the development of such structures, to understand the infection of cocoa pods by P. palmivora isolates from Papua New Guinea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Fungal Pathogenesis)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

11 pages, 2462 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Regional Evaluation of Fungal Pathogen Incidence in Colombian Cocoa Crops

by Raquel Villamizar-Gallardo, Johann F. Osma and Oscar Orlando Ortíz-Rodriguez

Agriculture 2019, 9(3), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture9030044 - 4 Mar 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 5921

Abstract

The production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Colombia has a significant environmental and socioeconomic importance as a promissory crop in the post-conflict process. The department of Norte de Santander has cocoa crops that are dramatically affected by fungal pathogens causing important [...] Read more.

The production of cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) in Colombia has a significant environmental and socioeconomic importance as a promissory crop in the post-conflict process. The department of Norte de Santander has cocoa crops that are dramatically affected by fungal pathogens causing important losses during harvest and post-harvest. Therefore, the current study focused on the determination of the incidence of diseases caused by phytopathogenic fungi in cocoa crops, and the identification of primary phytopathogenic fungi found in biological material from different farms of the region. The study was conducted in four municipalities of the department, by sampling fruits infected with frosty pod rot (FPR) and black pod rot (BPR) that presented in situ incidence ranging from 0.37 to 21.58% and from 1.75 to 35.59%, respectively. The studied hybrid materials, together with clone TSH 65, were found to be the most susceptible, while the remaining clones were more tolerant, especially CCN 51, IMC 67, and ICS95. Fifteen strains were isolated using in vitro assays and then morphologically characterized both in solid media and by microscopy. Nine of them corresponded to the pathogen Moniliophthora roreri, and other six to Phytophthora palmivora. The isolated agents showed in vitro morphological variability, as well as the ability to adapt to different environments when growing in situ. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant-Microbe Interactions)

► Show Figures

Figure 1

Search Results (12)

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI

Saved Queries

Search Filter Reset All

Years

Feature Papers

Subjects

Journals

Article Types

Countries / Regions

Search Results (12)

Further Information

Guidelines

MDPI Initiatives

Follow MDPI