Search Results (9)

Traditional villages are irreplaceable cultural heritages, embodying complex human–environment interactions. This study uses historical geography analysis, kernel density estimation, centroid migration modeling, and Geodetector techniques to analyze the 2000-year spatiotemporal evolution and formation mechanisms of 224 nationally designated traditional villages in China’s Qinling-Daba Mountains. The findings are as follows: (1) These villages significantly cluster on sunny slopes of hills and low mountains with moderate gradients. They are also closely located near waterways, ancient roads, and historic cities. (2) From the embryonic stage during the Qin and Han dynasties, through the diffusion and transformation phases in the Wei, Jin, Song, and Yuan dynasties, to the mature stage in the Ming and Qing dynasties, the spatial center of these villages shifted distinctly southwestward. This migration was accompanied by expansion along waterway transport corridors, an enlarged spatial scope, and a decrease in directional concentration. (3) The driving forces evolved from a strong coupling between natural conditions and infrastructure in the early stage to human-dominated adaptation in the later stage. Agricultural innovations, such as terraced fields, and sociopolitical factors, like migration policies, overcame environmental constraints through the synergistic effects of cultural and economic networks. Full article

The excavation of the Lieshan Kiln site represents a significant advance in the field of ceramic archaeology. Previous scholars fixated on the white porcelain unearthed from this kiln, yet this study zeroed in on celadon from the Northern Song and Jin Dynasties. Celadon samples were analyzed using colorimetry, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy (ED-XRF), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), polarizing microscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and thermal expansion analysis. Results revealed that material and technological advancements in the production of the Lieshan Kiln and reveal the special phase-separated structure in the glaze of the transparent celadon, with a weakly reduced firing atmosphere. Celadon bodies from both periods were crafted from local sedimentary clays in a single-ingredient formula, with the Jin Dynasty refining the preparation, leading to enhanced density and higher firing temperatures compared to the Northern Song Dynasty. The celadon glaze, a high-calcium type made up of glaze ash and specific clays, differed from the body materials. The high SiO₂/Al₂O₃ molar ratio, along with Fe₂O₃ and trace P₂O₅, promoted phase separation. Glaze coloration was modulated by the interaction of Fe³⁺ and Fe²⁺ ions, and chemical coloration by Fe ions prevailed when phase-separated particles were minute enough to avoid Rayleigh or Mie scattering. In conclusion, the study deepens the understanding of ancient ceramic production by exploring the phase separation structure and coloring mechanism of the celadon. Full article

The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, along with its modern value and significance. To achieve the research objectives, the paper isolates related poems from the Complete Song Poetry and Complete Liao Jin Poetry as the research objects. First, it organizes and classifies the relevant poems through the ways in which the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism” is presented. Second, it examines the reasons behind this phenomenon, including the intellectualization of poetry and the Confucian academic background of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests. Thirdly, it explores the value and significance of this thought for modern China, showcasing the inherent diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony in Chinese culture. Full article

The spatio-temporal evolution of human subsistence strategies and their driving force in prehistoric Eurasia has received increasing attention with the rapid development of archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological, and isotopic research in recent decades, while studies focusing on the historical periods are relatively absent. In the Hexi Corridor in northwestern China, which has served as a hub for trans-Eurasian exchange since the late prehistoric period, archaeobotanical data have been reported from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age sites, as well as sites from the Wei and Jin Dynasties (220–420 BCE) to the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368 BCE). However, no archaeobotanical study has been conducted at sites of the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 CE), a crucial period connecting prehistoric and historical eras. In this study, we identified 32475 plant remains, including 31,463 broomcorn millets, 233 foxtail millets, and 780 weeds, from the Shuangdun North Beacon Tower (SDNBT) site of the Han Dynasty at the western end of the Hexi Corridor, suggesting that millets played a prominent part in human subsistence strategies in the area during this period. In addition, sheep, chicken, dog, horse, and rodent remains were also collected at the site. By applying a multi-disciplinary approach, we detected a remarkable change in plant-based subsistence in the ancient Hexi Corridor. Specifically, the importance of millet crops, compared with other crops (especially barley and wheat), in plant-based subsistence declined from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age; it apparently improved during the Han and Sui-Tang Dynasties (581–907 CE), when agricultural empires controlled the area, and then declined again during the Wei, Jin, Northern, and Southern Dynasties (220–581 CE) and the Song-Yuan Dynasty (960–1368 CE), when nomadic regimes controlled the area. Climate change, trans-Eurasian exchanges, and geopolitical shifts influenced the diachronic change in plant-based subsistence from the Late Neolithic to the historical periods in the Hexi Corridor. Full article

The Daoist monasteries, which were first popularized in southern China in the late fifth century, reflected major changes in the structure of medieval Daoism. From the perspective of comparative religious history, the rise of Daoist monasteries bears some similarity to the monasticisms that came into being in the Christian and Buddhist traditions; all three originated in hermitic and ascetic practices. However, Daoist monasticism did not naturally stem from the hermetic Daoism tradition; instead, it underwent a two-stage process of “grafting” in terms of its spiritual beliefs and values. The first stage saw the emergence of Daoist scriptures in the Jin and Song periods; in particular, the Lingbao scriptures, which transformed and distilled the tradition of hermetic Daoism practiced in the mountains and invested hermitic practice with a more complete and sacrosanct doctrinal foundation. The second saw the Southern Dynasties’ Celestial Masters order embrace and experiment with the beliefs and values within the Lingbao scriptures; this process introduced the inherent communitarian nature of the Celestial Masters into the development of Daoist monasticism and resulted in the large-scale transformation of religious practice among the Celestial Masters of the period. This change of direction among the Celestial Masters order in the Jin and Song periods toward mountain-based practice led to the establishment of Daoist monasticism, but also to a loss of purity therein. Full article

From the middle of the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127), the Linji School became the main branch of the Southern Chan Buddhism. Understanding the historical significance of the Linji School is crucial for comprehending the origins and development of Chan Buddhism in China and East Asia. This article adheres to the academic approach of studying Chan in its historical context, using GIS (Geographic Information System) tools to include in the research all seven generations of Linji monks, from the fourth to the tenth Linji generation, and reconstructing the spatial and temporal process of Linji’s transmission in the 10th and 11th centuries. The study found that the Linji monastic group maintained a tenuous relationship with secular power in their ideology during the Northern Song Dynasty, with their preaching distribution center far from the power center (the capital), located to the south of the Yangtze River. This situation allowed the Linji monastic group to avoid extinction during the transition between the Song and Jin Dynasties, and the monastic group later became a unique and thriving force. Full article

Toward the end of the Eastern Jin 東晉 (317–420) and the beginning of the Liu Song 劉宋 (420–479) Dynasties, a series of scriptures, what we now know as the ancient Lingbao scriptures (gu Lingbao jing 古靈寶經), emerged. The texts contained various kinds of celestial scripts, which were regarded as the archetype of all the Lingbao scriptures. Among them, the 3 most important were the 672 graphs of the Perfected Script on Five Tablets in Red Writing (Chishu wupian zhenwen 赤書五篇真文), found in the Scripture of Celestial Writing 天書經 (DZ 22), the 256 graphs of the Self-Generating Jade Graphs of the Secret Language of the Great Brahmā (Dafan yinyu ziran yuzi 大梵隱語自然玉字), found in the Inner Sounds of All the Heavens 諸天內音 (DZ 97), and the 64 graphs of the Jade Script of the Five Directions and Five Sprouts (Wufang wuya yuwen 五方五牙玉文), found in the Preface to the Five Talismans of Lingbao 靈寶五符序 (DZ 388). This article traces the origins of these Lingbao celestial scripts, analyzing and explaining the content of their images and text, as well as the beliefs and practices related to them. It then summarizes how Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477), a prominent Daoist of the Liu Song Southern Dynasty, classified and understood the various scripts in his Catalogue of Lingbao Scriptures (Lingbao jingmu 靈寶經目). Such discussions reveal some basic characteristics of Daoism that distinguish it from other religious traditions: the veneration of written symbols, the pursuit of longevity and immortality, and the synthesis of philosophy and belief. Beliefs concerning celestial writing and scripts occupy a pivotal position in the broader system of Daoist scripture and teachings. Full article

Narratives of willow trees in Yuan zaju 雜劇, or variety play, largely come in three types, namely, the ritual performance of shooting willows; the deliverance of willow spirits by Lü Dongbin, one of the Eight Immortals of Daoism; and the use of the word willow to refer to women. The willow shooting ritual depicted in Yuan zaju was highly reminiscent of the willow shooting ritual popular throughout the Song (960–1279), Liao (916–1125), Jin (1115–1234), and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties, with its conceptual origins traceable to the ancient shamanic belief in the willow as a sacred tree prevalent among the Khitans and Jurchens who lived in what is now northeastern China. The legend of Lü Dongbin delivering a willow spirit to immortality is a recurring motif in Han Chinese folklore and Daoist hagiography, which also finds expression in the iconic image of Guanyin Pusa or Bodhisattva Avalokitesvara holding a willow branch with which they cure diseases for people and bring fulfillment to their wishes. The frequent use of “willow leaf-shaped eyebrows” (liumei 柳眉) and “willow-like waist” (liuyao 柳腰) in Yuan zaju as metaphorical references to women can be seen as a continuation of the great literary tradition of Shijing 詩經 (The Book of Songs) and also as a dramatic enactment of the fertility cult of the willow and women in Chinese folk religion. Evidence abounds that the narratives about the willow in Yuan zaju were not a new creation but an artistic manifestation of centuries-old folk belief and literary tradition. Full article

The seaports of the Jin dynasty have not been given enough attention for a long time. In recent years, some important seaport sites of the Jin dynasty have been discovered or reported, for example the Haifengzhen (海丰镇) site in Hebei Province, and the Haibei (海北) and Banqiaozhen (板桥镇) sites in Shandong Province. Based on these discoveries and other related information, we can try to analyze and infer the function and system of these seaports in the Jin dynasty. Firstly, Banqiaozhen Shi Bo Si (市舶司), the Northern Song Dynasty’s only foreign trade administration in the north of China, suffered a great deal of damage during the war at the end of the Northern Song dynasty. As a consequence, the porcelains produced in Northern China during the Jin Dynasty, such as Cizhou Ware (磁州窑), Cicun Ware (磁村窑), and Ding Ware (定窑) needed new seaports for access to the Korean Peninsula and Japan. It has been reported that many of these porcelains were discovered at Korean and Japanese sites, which correspond to the years of the Jin dynasty. Furthermore, a large number of these porcelains were discovered at the Haifengzhen and Haibei sites. There is thus a very strong possibility that these two sites were departure ports to East Asia of the Maritime Silk Road during the Jin Dynasty. Secondly, many porcelains produced in Southern China, especially Jingdezhen Ware (景德镇窑), have been discovered at the Haifengzhen, Haibei, and Banqiaozhen sites. Some Ding Ware products were also discovered in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River during the Southern Song Dynasty, and also many Cizhou Ware and Ding Ware products were discovered in Northeastern China during the Jin Dynasty. Furthermore, in the coastal waters on the northern side of the Haifengzhen site, archaeologists have found some traces of shipwrecks dating from the same time. Based on the above information, we infer that the Haifengzhen, Haibei, and Banqiaozhen sites might also have played an important role in the seaway transshipment between Southern and Northern China during this period. In conclusion, we can determine that the recently discovered seaports of the Jin dynasty had two functions and systems, both internal and external:the Haifengzhen and Haibei sites opened China up to the Korean Peninsula and Japan, while the Haifengzhen, Haibei, and Banqiaozhen sites might also have been used for domestic coastal shipping. Full article