Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6020015

Authors: Juliana Amorim Conselheiro Adriana Araújo Reis-Menezes

Bats are recognized reservoirs for a vast array of viral diversity, including members of the Hepadnaviridae family. Within a One Health framework, genomic surveillance of these animals is fundamental to understanding viral diversity and the potential risks of zoonotic spillover in high-density human population areas. This study describes the detection of a bat hepadnavirus through agnostic viral metagenomics in samples from passive surveillance collected in urban and peri-urban areas in Brazil. Sequencing was performed using the Oxford Nanopore Technologies (MinION) platform, and the bioinformatics pipeline involved de novo assembly and taxonomic identification against viral databases. We identified several contigs with similarity to the Tent-making bat hepatitis B virus (TBHBV) in a single liver sample. The largest contig (3182 bp) represents the complete genome, exhibiting a nucleotide identity of 80.93% with the original reference isolate. Our findings document the circulation of this viral lineage in a new epidemiological setting (the Brazilian urban interface), underscoring the importance of continuous surveillance to monitor the evolution and geographic distribution of bat orthohepadnaviruses and their relevance to public health.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6020014

Authors: Raymond Edward Ruhaak Victor Vasilyevich Suntsov Li Yang

The Third Plague Pandemic originated in 19th-century Yunnan, China, yet the confluence of factors that enabled the pandemic strain Yersinia pestis 1.ORI to emerge and spread globally remains unclear. Using a One Health framework, this study investigates how human-driven ecological and socioeconomic changes disrupted zoonotic barriers in Yunnan. We conduct an interdisciplinary historical analysis, triangulating evidence from Qing dynasty gazetteers, environmental reconstructions, and biological data on plague ecology, including host–vector dynamics, to model conditions for spillover and spread and to build a convergent, validated case. The analysis identifies a mid-19th-century convergence that created a high-risk interface: widespread deforestation from mining and agriculture, rapid population growth, increased synanthropic rat densities, and the turmoil of the Panthay Rebellion. Socioeconomic stressors—labour migration into mining valleys, currency devaluation undermining food security, and comorbidities such as malnutrition, heavy metal contamination, and opium use—may have further increased host susceptibility. This socio-ecological context catalysed spillover and establishment of the 1.ORI strain in commensal rat populations. The findings show the pandemic’s origin reflects spatiotemporal convergence rather than a single cause, while noting uncertainty in quantifying historical ecological and health parameters; the case offers a framework for assessing contemporary pandemic risks. It underscores how layered pressures operate across timescales.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6020013

Authors: Ellen Walsh Eibhlín Higgins Madiha Fida Mitchell Dumais Anisha Misra Omar Abu Saleh

Pasteurella species are facultatively anaerobic Gram-negative coccobacilli residing in the upper respiratory tract of mammals, fowl and domestic animals including cats and dogs. Localized infections with Pasteurella species are common but invasive infections are rare. There is a paucity of data available on risk factors, clinical presentations and outcomes with Pasteurella bloodstream infection. We conducted a retrospective review of patients with Pasteurella bacteremia presenting to our institution. There were 63 presentations (61 patients) with Pasteurella bacteremia. Immunosuppression, malignancy and alcohol misuse were common. Rates of admission to intensive care (n = 18, 29.5%) and death prior to hospital discharge (n = 7, 11.5%) were high.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6020012

Authors: Young-Mi Cho Ntala Laurantine Sunjo Divine Atem Nkengasong Chiara Achangwa

Background: The resurgence of Mpox (formerly known as monkeypox) since the 2022 global outbreak has exposed weaknesses in surveillance, diagnosis, and public risk communication systems. Despite increased clinical understanding, limitations in knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) among both healthcare workers (HCWs) and the general population continue to challenge prevention and control measures. Numerous systematic reviews have been published on KAP toward Mpox, yet their findings remain fragmented. This review aimed to consolidate the existing evidence from published systematic reviews to provide a unified understanding of global KAP levels related to Mpox. Methods: We followed the PRISMA guidelines for this systematic review of systematic reviews. The article search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and the Cochrane Library for systematic reviews published between January 2010 and October 2025. Data was extracted on study design, population, and reported quantitative outcomes. Results: Five studies met the inclusion criteria: three focused on HCWs, while two focused on the general population. Among HCWs, knowledge ranged from 26.0% to 46.7%, and attitudes from 28.2% to 62.2%. In the general population, knowledge ranged from 33.0% to 46.6%, attitudes from 40.0% to 71.9%, and perceptions averaged around 40.0%. Across both groups, Mpox knowledge was limited, attitudes were moderately positive, and preventive behaviors remained consistently low, revealing a persistent gap between awareness and practice. Conclusions: This review highlights persistent gaps in knowledge, attitudes, and practices among HCWs and the general population. Although global attention increased substantially following the 2022 outbreak, important weaknesses remain in translating knowledge into consistent preventive behaviors. Addressing these gaps requires structured and context-specific interventions. Integrating Mpox-focused modules into mandatory Continuing Medical Education credits for HCWs could ensure sustained competency in diagnosis, infection prevention, and outbreak response beyond peak epidemic periods. For the general population, strategic risk communication campaigns should leverage trusted community leaders and social media influencers in high-risk regions to counter misinformation, reduce stigma, and promote evidence-based preventive behaviors. Embedding these targeted strategies within broader pandemic preparedness and global health security frameworks will be essential to strengthening early detection, public trust, and coordinated outbreak response in future Mpox or other emerging infectious disease events.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6020011

Authors: Deepak Subedi Sameer Thakur Madhav Paudel Parikshya Gurung Sujan Kafle Suman Bhattarai Abhisek Niraula Hari Marasini Milan Kandel Surendra Karki Anand Tiwari Sumit Jyoti

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) is a transboundary and zoonotic viral disease affecting poultry and wild birds in many countries worldwide. Globally, HPAI outbreaks have led to the death or culling of hundreds of millions of birds over the past two decades and have caused nearly 1000 confirmed human H5N1 infections, with a case fatality rate of approximately 50%. Asia and Europe remain among the most affected regions, with recurrent outbreaks linked to intensive poultry production, live bird markets, and migratory bird pathways. In Nepal, HPAI has been reported since 2009, with more than 320 outbreaks recorded and over 2.7 million birds lost, alongside one confirmed human fatality. Control measures rely largely on stamping out, movement restrictions, and surveillance; however, gaps in farm-level biosecurity, informal cross-border poultry trade, and limited vaccination use continue to sustain vulnerability. Strengthened multisectoral coordination under a One Health framework, integrating veterinary and public health surveillance, molecular monitoring, community awareness, and risk-based biosecurity enforcement, is essential to reduce the impact of HPAI and mitigate future zoonotic and pandemic risks.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010010

Authors: Nicol Quiroga Antonella Bacigalupo Esteban San Juan Juana P. Correa Gemma Rojo Rodolfo Paredes Aldo Solari Christian Hidalgo Carezza Botto-Mahan

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is maintained in nature by complex interactions among wild vertebrates and triatomine insect vectors, yet the role of many introduced hosts remains poorly resolved. Here, we assessed natural T. cruzi infection in wild European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) from central Chile, where introduced rabbits overlap ecologically with the sylvatic vector Mepraia spinolai. Eight free-ranging rabbits captured in Las Chinchillas National Reserve were evaluated using an integrative diagnostic approach combining xenodiagnosis with laboratory-reared, parasite-free M. spinolai nymphs, real-time polymerase chain reaction targeting T. cruzi satellite DNA in blood and 12–14 organs per animal, and histopathology with immunohistochemistry (anti-cruzipain) to identify tissue parasite forms. Blood molecular detection was positive in seven out of eight rabbits, while xenodiagnosis detected viable parasites in two out of seven evaluated individuals. Organ molecular screening detected T. cruzi DNA in at least one organ in all rabbits, with frequent positivity in the diaphragm, reproductive tissues, spleen, and kidney. Histopathology identified parasite forms in four out of eight animals, and immunohistochemistry confirmed hepatic amastigotes in one case. These findings provide multi-method evidence of natural infection in the sampled individuals, including evidence of parasite viability in some individuals, suggesting potential epidemiological relevance within this ecological context and possible utility for surveillance in Chilean sylvatic transmission settings.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010009

Authors: Abdullah Khan Zada Mashal Salehi

Background: Human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA) is a tick-borne zoonotic infection caused by Anaplasma phagocytophilum and transmitted by Ixodes species. In temperate regions, HGA is considered seasonal, with most cases occurring during late spring and summer. We describe two cases of HGA diagnosed in January during a winter period with episodic temperatures exceeding thresholds for tick activity, highlighting atypical seasonal presentation and diagnostic challenges. Methods: This report details the clinical course, diagnostic reasoning, and management of two patients evaluated at a tertiary care hospital in Suffolk County, New York. Data were derived from direct clinical care and the electronic health record. The institutional review board determined this work did not constitute human subject research. Written informed consent was obtained from both patients. Results: Both patients presented with acute febrile illness and characteristic laboratory abnormalities. Due to winter season, tick-borne infection was not initially suspected, resulting in delayed consideration. PCR testing confirmed A. phagocytophilum infection in Case 1, meeting CDC criteria for confirmed HGA. Case 2 met CDC criteria for probable HGA based on serologic testing showing elevated IgG (1:320) in the appropriate clinical context. Treatment with doxycycline led to rapid clinical improvement and complete recovery. Conclusions: These cases demonstrate that HGA can be diagnosed during winter months in endemic regions. Although the precise timing of infection cannot be determined, these observations occurred during a period when episodic temperatures exceeded thresholds for tick activity. The cases highlight limitations of season-based diagnostic assumptions and suggest maintaining clinical suspicion for anaplasmosis year-round in endemic areas.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010008

Authors: Temidayo Oluwatosin Omotehinwa Augustine Ovie Edegbene Onyemocho Audu Stephen Obekpa Abah Oladapo Sunday Shittu Ediga Bede Agbo Innocent Achanya Otobo Ujah John Alechenu Idoko Joseph Anejo-Okopi

Lassa fever remains a major public health threat in West Africa, yet the household and behavioural determinants of prior Lassa virus exposure are not sufficiently understood. This study examined environmental, behavioural, and demographic factors associated with Lassa virus IgG seropositivity among residents of selected states in North-Central Nigeria. Analysis was carried out on baseline data from 958 participants enrolled in the first phase of an ongoing longitudinal cohort study, which collected information on rodent exposure, house integrity, food safety practices, and household composition. Formative indices were constructed and standardised, and logistic regression models with 1000-iteration bootstrap estimation were used to identify predictors of IgG positivity. Seroprevalence of Lassa virus IgG was 19%, while IgM positivity was 1.15%. Rodent activity around and within homes was widespread, with more than 86% of participants reporting rodent presence. Logistic regression analysis showed that rodent exposure (standardised coefficient 0.20, 95% CI 0.02–0.43) and participant age (0.20, 95% CI 0.05–0.35) were significant predictors of IgG seropositivity. Household size demonstrated a strong inverse association (−0.41, 95% CI −0.68 to −0.20). House integrity and food safety formative indices exhibited weak and non-significant effects. Model performance was acceptable (AUC 0.63; Brier score 0.148), and variance inflation factor values confirmed negligible multicollinearity. These findings emphasised the continuing role of rodent exposure and demographic factors in Lassa virus transmission risk. This implies that there is a need to strengthen community-level rodent control and household-based prevention strategies, which can help to reduce exposure.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010007

Authors: Roaa Khafaji Sura S. Khafaji Reem S. Ubayis Sally Rita Witwit Eddean Witwit Ahmed Jawad Laurent O. Mosnier Juan C. de la Torre Haydar Witwit

Crimean–Congo Hemorrhagic Fever (CCHF) disease, caused by the CCHF virus (CCHFV), poses a significant fatality risk whose underlying pathological mechanisms, including the contribution of coagulation factors, imbalances and platelet abnormalities, remain poorly understood. Here we present a meta-analysis and meta-regression analysis using clinical data from coagulation assays and platelet parameters as predictive disease indices with the goal of uncovering pathognomonic factors and to pave a way for the development of effective therapeutic approaches. Methods: We systematically analyzed published studies reporting coagulation assays and platelet indices in patients with confirmed CCHF. Data from 1779 patients across the published studies were analyzed to assess associations between laboratory parameters and the fatality risk, while evaluating heterogeneity and prognostic significance. Results: Fatal outcomes were strongly associated with elevated liver enzymes (AST: 1116.71 ± 1454.08 IU/mL; ALT: 446.56 ± 457.41 IU/mL) and prolonged clotting times (PT: 19.53 ± 6.57 s; aPTT: 64.02 ± 23.13 s; INR: 1.53 ± 0.56). D-dimer levels did not significantly predict fatality. Thrombocytopenia and coagulopathy emerged as independent risk factors for adverse outcomes. Notably, protein C and protein S levels did not differ between survivors and non-survivors, suggesting that the coagulopathy is not purely consumptive or a result of impaired hepatic synthesis. In contrast, mildly reduced antithrombin levels (83.65 ± 19.90) were weighted toward increased mortality.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010006

Authors: Muhammad Belal Hossain Mariah Dee Cary Springer Rochelle Butler

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, remains a significant zoonotic disease across the globe disproportionately affecting rural populations reliant on livestock farming. Despite the availability of vaccines for humans and animals, and preventive measures, anthrax outbreaks continue to occur due to convergence of inadequate animal husbandry practices, socioeconomic vulnerabilities, and cultural traditions. This study aimed to identify and quantitatively synthesize the key exposure-related behavioral risk factors for human anthrax infection while contextualizing socio-demographic and cultural determinants through narrative review. A systematic review and meta-analysis were performed in accordance with PRISMA guidelines. Using a random-effects model, risk estimates were pooled exclusively for exposure-related behavioral pathways that are mechanistically linked to anthrax transmission, while socio-demographic and cultural variables were summarized narratively due to heterogeneity in study design, variable definition, and limited cross-study comparability. A total of 20 studies were included, primarily from Africa, Asia, and Europe. The meta-analysis identified a consistent set of high-risk exposure pathways, including contact with raw meat from infected animals (OR = 5.79, 95% CI: 4.04–8.31), skinning (OR = 5.64, 95% CI: 3.73–8.52), butchering (OR = 6.54, 95% CI: 3.26–13.09), slaughtering or presence during slaughter (OR = 5.16, 95% CI: 2.54–10.49), and handling of carcasses or animal by-products (OR = 4.13, 95% CI: 2.88–5.92). Socio-demographic and cultural factors, including religious norms and demographic characteristics, were consistently identified as contextual modifiers of anthrax risk across studies but were not quantitatively pooled because of methodological and definitional heterogeneity. While heterogeneity varied by risk factor, it remained generally low to moderate, supporting the consistency of findings across diverse settings. Our findings emphasize that direct exposure-related behaviors represent the dominant and consistent transmission pathways for human anthrax across endemic settings. Effective prevention strategies should prioritize improved livestock management, enhanced biosecurity systems, community education on safe animal handling practices, particularly the handling of moribund livestock or dead animals of unknown origin, and strengthened veterinary services. Future research should prioritize region-specific interventions and conduct longitudinal studies to assess the effectiveness of anthrax risk reduction efforts.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010005

Authors: Darrel Ornelle Elion Assiana Léa Gwladys Gangoue Freisnel Hermeland Mouzinga Claujeans Chastel Mfoutou Mapanguy Jabar Babatunde Pacôme Achimi Abdul Breli Bonheur Ngouama Mita Naomie Merveille Dello Franck-Hardin Okemba-Okombi Ayola Akim Adegnika Gabriel Ahombo Francine Ntoumi

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major public health challenge, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where the emergence of drug-resistant MTB undermines current control efforts. This study aimed to characterize genetic mutations associated with resistance to first- and second-line injectable drugs in MTB isolates from pulmonary TB patients in the Republic of Congo. A total of 45 culture-positive MTB isolates collected between 2018 and 2019 were analyzed using targeted next-generation sequencing on the MinION device. Resistance-associated genes, including rpoB, katG, embB, gyrA, and rrs, were examined. Overall, 22/45 isolates (48%) harbored at least one mutation associated with drug resistance. Among resistant isolates, rifampicin resistance was detected in 15 of 22 (68.2%), predominantly associated with mutations in the rpoB rifampicin resistance–determining region, including p.Ser531Leu, p.Asp516Val, and p.His526Tyr.Ethambutol resistance was observed in 11 of 22 isolates (50.0%) and was mainly associated with the embB p.Met306Val mutation. Isoniazid resistance was detected in 9 of 22 isolates (40.9%), primarily associated with the KatG p.Ser315Thr mutation. Fluoroquinolone resistance was identified in 2 of 22 isolates (9.1%), mainly associated with gyrA p.Ala90Val and p.Asp94Gly mutations. Resistance to second-line injectable drugs was detected in 1 of 22 isolates (4.5%) and was associated with the rrs p.Ala1401Gly mutation. These findings underscore the need to enhance molecular surveillance and strengthen treatment protocols for drug-resistant TB in the Republic of Congo to effectively combat this evolving health crisis.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010004

Authors: Mwajabu Selemani Abdul S. Katakweba Shabani Kiyabo Motto Rhodes H. Makundi

Background: Africa is a continent with diverse climates, landscapes, rainfall patterns, and vegetation types, all of which significantly influence its mammalian fauna, particularly small mammals. Rodents, which are highly diverse across the continent, serve as reservoirs for various zoonotic pathogens. Frequent human–rodent interactions heighten the risk of zoonotic disease transmission, posing a serious public health concern. Methods: This study conducted a comprehensive review of rodent control methods and their effectiveness in mitigating zoonotic diseases in Africa. Literature searches were performed using PubMed, Web of Science, ResearchGate, and Google Scholar. Additionally, one study was manually identified from the reference lists of the retrieved papers. Results: Thirteen relevant studies were identified, including seven field-based studies, five model evaluations, and one review. The distribution of studies varied by country, with the highest numbers conducted in Guinea (n = 3) and Nigeria (n = 3), followed by Sierra Leone (n = 2), Uganda (n = 2), Morocco (n = 1), Tanzania (n = 1), and Madagascar (n = 1). Two primary rodent control methods, kill traps and rodenticides, were used, targeting multimammate rats (Mastomys natalensis) and black/roof rats (Rattus rattus), the species most frequently encountered in human settings. Conclusion: Most studies examined short-term rodent management strategies, which proved insufficient in significantly reducing zoonotic disease prevalence. These findings highlight the need for Africa to adopt more sustainable, ecologically based rodent control approaches to effectively curb zoonotic risks in the long term.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010003

Authors: Ethar Alsulami Roudin H. Alhasawi Abdulaziz F. Samandar Omnia A. Sulimani Safia H. Alansari Shahad A. Alshehri Reem A. Alshehri Saud A. Al-luhaypi Mazin M. Aljabri

Background: With the worldwide resurgence of Mpox in 2022, understanding its regional features is important. This systematic review aimed to provide an overview of the epidemiology, risk factors, clinical features, and outcomes of Mpox in Saudi Arabia to fill the knowledge gaps in this area. Methods: Following the guidelines of the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses, a systematic search was performed on PubMed, MEDLINE (via Ovid), Scopus and Wiley Online Library for case reports and series published on Mpox in Saudi Arabia after 2022. Results: Analysis included eight studies comprising a total of 410 patients with confirmatory data. The cohort was predominantly male (91%), with a mean age of 32.8 years. Extramarital sexual contact was the most frequently identified risk factor (28.8%), whereas most patients (63.4%) had unknown or denied exposure routes. The most common clinical manifestations were fever (97.1%) and rash (96.8%). Dermatological findings were usually pleomorphic. These included umbilicated pustules, crusted papules, and vesiculopustular lesions. Although management was primarily supportive, rare complications, such as keratitis and neurological deficits, were observed. Conclusions: In Saudi Arabia, Mpox primarily affects young adult males, particularly individuals with high-risk sexual behaviors. Much of this transmission remains undetermined, and better contact tracing and focused public health efforts are urgently required.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010002

Authors: Daniele Rosa Xavier de Melo Michellin Pereira de Albuquerque Fabricio dos Santos Menezes Sílvia von Tiesenhausen de Sousa-Carmo Adriano Pinter

Brazilian spotted fever (BSF) is a tick-borne acute febrile disease that can be lethal to humans, caused by the bacterium Rickettsia rickettsii. In the State of São Paulo, transmission occurs mainly through two tick species: Amblyomma sculptum and Amblyomma aureolatum. We analyzed trends in BSF incidence and mortality in relation to the spatial distribution of these vector species in the State of São Paulo from 2007 to 2017 and evaluated clinical outcomes according to hospitalization location. In A. sculptum areas, incidence and mortality showed significant increasing trends between 2007 and 2015 (p-value < 0.05). In contrast, A. aureolatum areas exhibited a significant decrease in incidence (p-value < 0.05), while mortality remained stable throughout the study period. Lethality was substantially higher in cases associated with A. aureolatum than in those linked to A. sculptum (67.1% versus 55.0%, p-value = 0.037). Most patients received care in hospitals located near the probable site of infection. Incidence and mortality patterns differed sharply between vector-specific areas, with notably higher mortality in A. aureolatum-related cases. These findings highlight the importance of incorporating vector distribution into surveillance, prevention, and clinical management strategies to better address the distinct epidemiological contexts within the State of São Paulo.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis6010001

Authors: Barbara Ravazzolo Francesco Leonforte Letizia Cascio Clara Ferrara Federico Li Causi Francesco Armetta Maria Lampasona Rinaldo Stefano Miceli Carlo Fantini Klara Komici Alberto Firenze

Background: Human monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), endemic in Central and West Africa. A significant 2022 outbreak affected 104 countries, driven by increased susceptibility due to the cessation of smallpox vaccination, global travel, and interactions with infected animals. Strengthening surveillance, public health measures, and raising awareness are essential for early diagnosis, vaccination acceptance, and preventing future outbreaks. Methods: The survey was distributed to 645 nursing students of the University of Palermo between July 2022 and August 2022, and we estimated the knowledge, attitudes and behaviors through a KAP Survey. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the data, while chi-squared, Fisher’s exact, and Student’s t-tests were employed to analyze differences between groups, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. At least 80% of the students surveyed had already taken the microbiology exam, as microbiology is studied in the first year of the Bachelor of Science in Nursing program at the University of Palermo. Results: The survey showed a predominantly young, female nursing student population with limited knowledge of monkeypox, as only 3.88% demonstrated adequate understanding. Despite this, attitudes toward prevention were positive, with 82.64% scoring adequately and 41.09% expressing strong willingness to get vaccinated. Knowledge improved with academic progression (p = 0.005), while attitudes and behaviors remained consistent. These findings imply a critical gap in education; the limited knowledge, especially regarding transmission and severity, may lead to an underestimation of the risks associated with global infectious diseases. This underscores the need to better prepare future healthcare professionals for public health emergencies Conclusions: The study found that nursing students had limited knowledge of monkeypox, especially regarding epidemiology and disease severity. Despite positive attitudes toward vaccination, some behaviors reflected an underestimation of global infection risks. Knowledge improved with academic progression, underscoring the importance of education. Targeted educational programs are needed to enhance awareness and preparedness for future outbreaks.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040036

Authors: Vitor Daniel Sousa Diego Simeone

Zoonotic diseases represent an important interface between socio-environmental change and public health, yet integrative assessments linking ecological and social determinants remain limited in tropical regions. This study mapped how socio-environmental drivers have shaped research patterns on zoonotic diseases in Brazil. We integrated socio-environmental data from empirical evidence with statistical modeling to evaluate temporal trends, thematic associations, and geographic distribution across six major zoonoses: leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, leptospirosis, yellow fever, Brazilian spotted fever, and hantavirus infection. Research output increased after 2010, particularly for leishmaniasis, Chagas disease, and leptospirosis, reflecting growing recognition of land-use change and socioeconomic vulnerability as key drivers of disease risk. Network analyses revealed strong thematic connections between zoonoses and land-use or socioeconomic factors, whereas climate change remained underrepresented. Spatially, research efforts were concentrated in the Amazon and Cerrado biomes, underscoring both ecological significance and persistent regional disparities in knowledge production. These findings demonstrate that Brazil’s zoonotic research landscape mirrors broader socio-environmental pressures, where deforestation, poverty, and climatic variability jointly influence disease dynamics. Strengthening geographically inclusive and environmentally informed research frameworks that integrate climate, land-use, and surveillance data will be essential to improve early-warning systems and guide sustainable, cross-sectoral public health policies.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040035

Authors: Alaa A. A. Aljabali Abdelrahim Alqudah Rasha M. Bashatwah Rawan Alsharedeh Esam Qnais Omar Gammoh Vijay Mishra Yachana Mishra Mohamed El-Tanani Taher Hatahet

Viral zoonoses represent a critical intersection of global health, ecology, and ethical issues. Pathogens that pass from animals to humans. This review examines the complex landscape of viral zoonoses, including their mechanisms, impact, and mitigation strategies. We begin with insights into the historical context and significance of these diseases and then explore spillover mechanisms influenced by genetic, ecological, and anthropogenic factors. This review covers the host range, transmission dynamics, and immunological barriers, including viral detection, adaptation, and immune evasion. Genomic insights have revealed the genetic determinants of host switching and adaptation, illuminating the dynamics of viral spillover events. We emphasize the anticipation and prevention of zoonotic events, highlighting surveillance, early warning systems, and the “One Health” approach. Using case studies of outbreaks such as Ebola, avian influenza, and COVID-19, this review examines the real-world consequences of zoonotic diseases. We then discuss interventions, including mitigation strategies and vaccination, and their ethical and social implications. Drawing on past outbreaks, we provide recommendations for the future, aiming to balance human health, conservation, and animal welfare. This review aims to inform professionals, academics, and policymakers by offering a multidisciplinary perspective on the complex world of viral zoonoses and strategies to protect global health.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040034

Authors: Mark Orsag Giovanni Meledandri Amanda McKinney Melissa Clouse

Our article presents a holistic analysis aimed at discerning patterns from ancient–modern comparative contexts of malaria. The article’s interdisciplinary and consilient methodology is drawn from a range of disciplines: the humanities and social sciences, medical knowledge (particularly epidemiology and pathology), molecular phylogenetics, demography, archaeology, paleopathology, numismatics, complex systems theory, etc. The article begins with a detailed exploration of a 463 BCE epidemic event that likely marked the, ultimately transformative, debut of P. falciparum evolutionary lineage malaria for ancient Roman civilization. It is important to note that the concept of evolutionary lineage is defined herein as a sequence of organisms, descended from a common ancestor and culminating, for the present at least, in the form existing currently. An interdisciplinary retrospective diagnosis methodology is utilized to establish, with what we believe to be a high degree of probability, a conclusion that effectively marks the beginning point for the ancient side of our comparative example. The deep interdisciplinary/historical methods used to elucidate the ancient side of the disease equation both lead to a clear conclusion and suggest potential modern analogies or even “prophecies.” These are used to highlight the threats emanating from the current spread of zoonotic P. knowlesi malaria in Southeast Asia. The article also utilizes six broader holistic and interdisciplinary factors in its contextual and comparative analysis: (A) political, military and security contexts; (B) the effects of cultural perceptions; (C) the role of climate and climate change; (D) additional anthropogenic environmental factors; (E) perceptions, practices and capabilities of prevailing medical systems and (F) holistic underlying states of the health of affected populations.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040033

Authors: Chinedu Amaeze Frank Mohammed D. Goni Nor Fadhilah Kamaruzzaman Hafeez A. Afolabi Mohammed S. Gaddafi Aliyu Yakubu Shamsaldeen Ibrahim Saeed

Campylobacter spp. are significant zoonotic pathogens, increasingly recognized for their role in the transmission of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) between animals and humans. This study aims to determine the occurrence, antimicrobial resistance profiles, and characterization of multidrug resistance indices of Campylobacter spp. isolated from domestic pets in Kelantan, Malaysia. Methods: Rectal swabs (n = 150) were collected from both healthy and diarrheic cats. Campylobacter spp. were isolated and confirmed by PCR, and antimicrobial susceptibility was assessed using the disk diffusion method. Results: Campylobacter spp. were detected in 35.3% of cats (53/150; SE = 0.04; 95% CI: 28.1–43.3%), with C. upsaliensis identified as the predominant species (33.3%; SE = 0.05; 95% CI: 24.5–43.6%), followed by C. jejuni (17.8%; SE = 0.04; 95% CI: 11.3–26.9%) and C. coli (7.8%; SE = 0.03; 95% CI: 3.8–15.2%). Isolates exhibited high resistance rates to amoxicillin (90.6%), ampicillin (81.1%), tetracycline (67.9%), erythromycin (62.3%), and sulphonamides (54.7%). Conclusion: The study reveals a substantial prevalence of Campylobacter spp. and notable levels of antimicrobial resistance among feline isolates, highlighting the zoonotic threat in Malaysia. These findings emphasize the importance of integrated surveillance and prudent antimicrobial stewardship under a One Health framework.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040032

Authors: Anirban Banik Soumya Basu

Viral zoonoses or viral pathogens transmitted from animals to humans—constitute a rapidly intensifying global health and economic challenge. They are responsible for an estimated 2.5 billion illnesses and 2.7 million deaths annually, representing nearly 60% of all infectious diseases and 75% of newly emerging infections. Recent outbreaks, including Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), Ebola, Nipah, and avian influenza, underscore their capacity to overwhelm health systems, with COVID-19 alone projected to reduce global Gross Domestic Product by USD 22 trillion by 2025 and impose annual healthcare costs of USD 2–3 trillion. Beyond mortality and morbidity, zoonotic events disrupt trade, depress rural livelihoods, and inflict agricultural losses exceeding USD 100 billion per outbreak, with impacts disproportionately borne by low- and middle-income countries. Hotspot regions across tropical North and South America, Asia, and Central Africa remain especially vulnerable due to accelerating land use change, climate variability, and intensified wildlife–human interfaces. While the Global One Health Index highlights high regional heterogeneity, with sub-Saharan Africa scoring lowest, a critical gap persists between the conceptual strength of One Health and its operationalization in resource-limited settings. This review synthesizes evidence on drivers, clinical manifestations, and socioeconomic burdens of viral zoonoses, while highlighting novel perspectives on equity gaps, co-infection dynamics, and limitations of global preparedness initiatives. We argue that current strategies remain over-reliant on donor-driven agendas and insufficiently integrated across sectors. Addressing future zoonotic threats requires prioritizing surveillance in high-risk geographies, integrating epidemiological and economic data for preparedness planning, and supporting context sensitive One Health approaches that confront political, financial, and structural barriers to implementation.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040031

Authors: Saranya Vijayakumar Saurav Pantha Brian Wolfe Qi Zhang Shristy Budha Magar Tawfik Aboellail Santosh Dhakal

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) primarily cause respiratory illness but can also induce extrapulmonary effects, which may be aggravated by obesity. This study evaluated the impact of obesity on virus replication, histopathological changes, and cytokine/chemokine profiles in extrapulmonary sites during the acute phase, following a high-dose IAV infection. Diet-induced non-obese mice or mice with obesity were inoculated intranasally with either vehicle (medium) or 103 TCID50 of the 2009 pandemic H1N1 IAV. At 3 days post-infection (dpi), the lungs, blood, and various extrapulmonary tissues were collected for virus titration, histopathological analysis, and cytokine/chemokine quantification. IAV infection resulted in comparable virus titers (6–7 log10 TCID50/mL) and histopathological scores (p > 0.05 in each case) in the lungs of mice with or without obesity. Replicating viruses were not detected in the extrapulmonary sites, and histopathological scores did not differ significantly between the two groups. However, analysis of fold changes in five cytokines/chemokines (i.e., IL-6, IL-1β, TNFα, MCP-1, and IFNγ) revealed site-specific differences. IL-6 was significantly higher (p < 0.05) in the lungs and perirenal adipose tissue, and showed a higher trend in the kidney (0.05 ≤ p ≤ 0.1); IL-1β had a higher trend in the lungs; TNFα was significantly lower in the kidney but showed a higher trend in the lungs; while MCP-1 was significantly lower in the lungs, plasma, and inguinal adipose tissue of mice with obesity compared to non-obese mice. Future studies should consider a broader range of IAV strains/subtypes, doses, time points, and inflammatory markers to better understand how obesity affects extrapulmonary outcomes.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040030

Authors: Edson Kinimi Lee Joo-Yeon Lee Jeong-Su Lim Hee-Young Min Su Yim Gerald Misinzo

The Marburg virus (MARV) is a zoonotic pathogen that causes a high case fatality rate of up to 100% in humans. In response to Marburg virus disease (MVD) outbreaks in the Kagera region, an ecological investigation was initiated to map the population and ecological threat to the reservoir host of MARV: Egyptian fruit bats. The investigation conducted from October 2023 to December 2024 included interviews with local authorities to locate all known autochthonous bat colonies in the region. Bat species confirmation was performed using high-resolution melting analysis (HRMA) and DNA barcoding, targeting two mitochondrial genes: cytochrome oxidase 1 (COI) and 16S rRNA. We found five considerably large cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bat colonies (with approximately 100,000 individuals) at the geolocations between 1°06′04.2″ and 2°26′35.8″ S latitude and 30°40′49.7″ and 31°51′19.8″ E longitude. The study also provides the first confirmed identification of Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) (accession numbers: PV700530-PV700534) in major bat colonies in the Kagera River Basin ecosystem. Cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bats in mines face higher risks, and thus, attention is needed to prevent this species from becoming more vulnerable to extinction. The loss of bat roosting sites and subsequent population declines are primarily driven by the destructive practice of burning car tyres and logs, a method used to eliminate colonies through toxic smoke and heat. The collection of guano and partially eaten fruits in mining caves, as well as daily contact with Egyptian fruit bats in mines, homes, and churches, have become major potential risk factors for MARV transmission to humans. Increased threats to bats in the Kagera region warrant the implementation of conservation strategies that ensure the survival of the bat populations and inform policies on MVD risk reduction in Tanzania and the broader East African region.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040029

Authors: Godlisten Shedrack Materu Jahashi Nzalawahe Mita Eva Sengupta Anna-Sofie Stensgaard Abdul Katakweba Yasinter Silvester Gerald P. Mwing’a Birgitte J. Vennervald Safari Kinung’hi

Background: Zoonotic fascioliasis and schistosomiasis, caused by trematode parasites transmitted by freshwater snails, are neglected tropical diseases of both medical and veterinary importance. There are critical knowledge gaps regarding the transmission dynamics of these infections in humans and animals, particularly in endemic African communities. Therefore, the current study aimed to determine the burden of human zoonotic schistosomiasis and fascioliasis among different age groups, focusing on the Lake Victoria zone and the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted among preschool-aged children, school-aged children, and adults. A total of 1557 stool and urine samples were collected, 400 from preschool children, 804 from school-aged children, and 353 from adults. Stool samples were processed using the Kato–Katz technique and the formol-ether concentration method to detect Schistosoma mansoni and Fasciola spp., respectively. Urine samples were examined for Schistosoma haematobium infection using the urine filtration method. Data were analyzed using Stata version 17. The t-tests or one-way ANOVA were used to assess statistical differences in the mean egg counts of S. mansoni and S. haematobium between exposure groups. Results: The overall prevalence of S. haematobium was 4.9%, S. mansoni was 1.2% with no significant differences across age groups, but with a statistically significant difference between sexes 1.8%. Males had a higher prevalence of both S. haematobium and S. mansoni infections compared to females. The prevalence of Fasciola infection was 0.9%, with the highest prevalence found in adults (≥18 years). Conclusions: Zoonotic schistosomiasis and fascioliasis are prevalent in the study area, affecting individuals across all age groups. This is the first study to report the presence of Fasciola infection in both the Lake Victoria zone and the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. These findings call for the Ministry of Health, through the Tanzania NTD Control Program, to recognize fascioliasis as a high-priority disease and include it in the national master plan.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040028

Authors: Dilceu Silveira Tolentino Júnior Heberson Teixeira da Silva Alessandro Martins Ribeiro Ana Mécia Ribeiro Amador Bruno Oliveira Souza e Silva Bárbara Mendes Guimarães Manuella Botelho Laure Nogueira Hellen Karine Campos Teixeira Eliseu Miranda de Assis

Brazil is the first of the 12 priority countries in Latin America with the highest number of cases of American cutaneous leishmaniasis (ACL). This study estimated the prevalence of ACL in Brazil and classified the states according to the different levels of endemicity in the period from 2014 to 2024. This is a retrospective and cross-sectional study of ACL cases registered in Brazil by the Information System for Notifiable Diseases of the Ministry of Health. The predominant cases were male (73.2%), brown (65.0%), aged between 20 and 39 (41.5%), with a low level of education (44.4%), 0.5% in pregnant women, 80% of cases were confirmed by laboratory criteria, and 90% were classified as cutaneous. A total of 182,072 autochthonous cases were recorded, with a prevalence of 89.6 cases per 100,000 population. Two states were classified as having high intense endemicity; three were classified as having medium intense endemicity; four were classified as having low intense endemicity; five states were classified as having moderate endemicity; and 13 were classified as having low endemicity. The municipality of Presidente Figueiredo, Amazonas, had the highest prevalence of ACL (5503.1%), while Belo Horizonte had the lowest prevalence (72.2%). The month with the highest average number of cases was January with 1731 (with a standard deviation of 364; upper limit of 1933; lower limit of 1572). The heterogeneity of endemicity among States suggests that social and environmental determinants influence the dynamics of ACL transmission. All sociodemographic, clinical, and epidemiological categories, when compared with the different levels of endemicity, showed significant effects (p < 0.05), except for the variable gestational status in high disease endemicity. The inclusion of these variables significantly improved the model’s ability to predict the dependent variable.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040027

Authors: Nafi’u Lawal Muhammad Bashar Jibril Muhammad Bashir Bello Abdurrahman Jibril Hassan Mustapha Umar Imam Samira Rabiu Anka Maryam Abida Alhassan Bello Magaji Arkilla Aminu Shittu

Mpox has re-emerged as a global public health threat, particularly in endemic regions such as Nigeria, where human, animal, and environmental health sectors intersect. To inform surveillance and control strategies, this study assessed the knowledge, attitudes, and practices (KAP) toward Mpox among One Health stakeholders in Nigeria. A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 492 participants from human, veterinary, and environmental health sectors using a structured questionnaire. Descriptive statistics, ordinal logistic regression, and margins analysis were used to evaluate levels and predictors of KAP. Results showed that 33.7% of respondents had low knowledge, 43.5% moderate, and 22.8% high. While 62.6% demonstrated high attitude scores, only 48.2% reported moderate preventive practices. Gender was significantly associated with attitudes, with females having lower odds of expressing higher attitudes than males (OR = 0.70, 95% CI: 0.49–1.00, p = 0.052), and margins analysis revealed a predicted probability of high attitude at 56% for females and 64% for males. Multivariable modeling for practice was not pursued because model fit did not improve compared to univariable results, and sparse data led to unstable estimates, thus offering no added explanatory power. These findings underscore persistent knowledge gaps and gender-related disparities that may hinder effective Mpox response. Targeted risk communication and capacity building are recommended to strengthen One Health preparedness in Nigeria.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5040026

Authors: Ricardo Lopes Hugo Lima de Carvalho Ana Cristina Ferreira Andreia Garcês Cátia Fernandes Ana Rita Silva Ana Patrícia Lopes Luís Cardoso Elsa Leclerc Duarte Ana Cláudia Coelho

Brucella canis is a neglected zoonotic pathogen associated with canine reproductive disorders and emerging public health concerns. This study presents the first nationwide systematic review and meta-analysis of Brucella spp. in Portugal, integrated with a 13-year retrospective seroepidemiological investigation (2013–2025) of B. canis in dogs across mainland Portugal and Insular Autonomous Regions. Among 132 canine serum samples, a seropositivity of 23.48% was observed using an immunochromatographic assay confirmed by indirect immunofluorescence (IFAT). Significant associations were identified with seasonality (p < 0.001) and breed (p = 0.001), while sex and age were not statistically significant. Municipal-level analysis revealed marked heterogeneity, with Trofa showing the highest seropositivity (58.82%) and a pooled odds ratio of 11.28 (95% CI: 2.90–43.94; p < 0.001). In parallel, meta-analyses of published data estimated a pooled seroprevalence of 2.42% in animals (95% CI: 1.79–3.13) and 10.57% in humans (95% CI: 8.80–12.47), underscoring the broader burden of Brucella spp. exposure in Portugal. These findings suggest underdiagnosis of canine brucellosis and highlight the need for enhanced surveillance in high-risk breeds and regions. The study reinforces the importance of integrated One Health strategies to improve early detection, control, and prevention of B. canis infection in both veterinary and public health contexts.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030025

Authors: Michellin Pereira de Albuquerque Cassiano Barbosa Marcelo Bahia Labruna Luis Filipe Mucci Ludia Barboza Leite Daniele Rosa Xavier de Melo Thiago Fernandes Martins Adriano Pinter

Rickettsia parkeri strain Atlantic rainforest is an emerging pathogen in Brazil, but human infections remain rarely reported. We report the first confirmed case in the municipality of Caraguatatuba on the northern coast of São Paulo State, Brazil. A 37-year-old man was bitten by an Amblyomma ovale tick while visiting a forested area. Six days later, he developed a papular skin lesion with a necrotic center at the tick bite site, accompanied by regional lymphadenopathy, myalgia, and flu-like symptoms. Ticks parasitizing both the patient and his dog were collected, along with the eschar. Two ticks were analyzed for Rickettsia isolation, and R. parkeri was successfully isolated from one infected specimen. The patient’s infection was confirmed by molecular testing through the PCR amplification of the gltA and ompA genes from an eschar inoculation sample. This represents the sixth confirmed case of rickettsiosis caused by R. parkeri in Brazil, and it reinforces the need for increased epidemiological surveillance in endemic regions for spotted fever caused by this pathogen. With the increasing recognition of R. parkeri in South America, further research is needed to better understand its transmission dynamics, clinical manifestations, and potential public health impact.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030024

Authors: Sue M. Neal Peter J. Wolf Melanie E. Anderson

Although trap-neuter-return (TNR) is a popular method for managing free-roaming domestic cat populations, a common criticism is that sterilization fails to mitigate the public health risks posed by free-roaming cats. One of these risks is the environmental contamination of Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that can be spread in the feces of actively infected felids (both domestic and wild). In healthy humans, toxoplasmosis tends to be mild or asymptomatic; however, the disease can have severe consequences (e.g., for pregnant women) and even be fatal in immunocompromised individuals. Previous research has examined the extent to which free-roaming domestic cats might contaminate sites frequented by young children (e.g., schools and parks). However, the model used included several assumptions that are not reflective of sterilized cats in an urban setting (e.g., smaller home range). By properly accounting for several key factors (e.g., reproductive status, home range), our modeling revealed considerably lower rates of potential incursions by sterilized free-roaming cats than those reported previously. More importantly, our results show that sterilization contributes to a considerable reduction in the risk of environmental contamination; TNR therefore appears to be a valuable harm reduction strategy in mitigating the risks of T. gondii infection.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030023

Authors: Sana Ullah Muhammad Waseem Khan Qurat-ul-Ain Khushbu Farva Niaz Muhammad Khan Hayat Ullah

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) raced around the world across different populations; there needs to be a consolidated effort to understand the divergence of the epidemiology of SARS-CoV-2. Population-based epidemiological characteristics studies measure the extent of SARS-CoV-2 infection in a country. The current research study was designed to report epidemiological data from Pakistan. For this purpose, 246 SARS-CoV-2-infected patients were included in the study. For SARS-CoV-2 confirmation, viral samples were collected from all the study participants; SARS-CoV-2 infection was confirmed by viral nucleic acid detection using a nucleic acid detection kit. After SARS-CoV-2 confirmation, all the study participants were interviewed for epidemiological data through a detailed questionnaire. The study results showed that the disease ratio was higher between 30 and 59 years (51.21%) of age. The male ratio (55.28%) was higher compared to the female ratio (44.71%). The patients’ illiteracy and low socioeconomic status were 32.52% and 59.75%, respectively. The majority of the patients (97.56%) had cough, smell or taste disturbance (79.67%), or fever (76.42%), and 70.73% had fatigue. For comorbidities, a higher ratio was observed for diabetes (38.61%), hypertension (36.17%), and respiratory disease (16.26%). The vaccination status analysis revealed that 51.21% of patients had not received routine immunizations, and 65.5% were un-vaccinated against SARS-CoV-2. Notably, not a single patient was vaccinated for influenza vaccine. The current research study concluded that SARS-CoV-2 was more prevalent in individuals who were middle aged, male, and had low socio-economic status. The most common symptoms were cough, smell or taste disturbance, and fever. The patients’ vaccination status highlights a critical gap in preventive healthcare and shows the need to strengthen vaccination awareness and accessibility in the population to reduce vulnerability to future outbreaks. Future research should focus on investigating the impact of COVID-19 outcomes on comorbidities such as diabetes and hypertension.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030022

Authors: Ayokunle A. Olagoke Comfort Tosin Adebayo Joseph Ayotunde Aderonmu Emmanuel A. Adeaga Kimberly J. Johnson

The 2025 avian influenza A(H5N1) outbreak has highlighted the urgent need for rapidly generated health communication materials during public health emergencies. Artificial intelligence (AI) systems offer transformative potential to accelerate content development pipelines while maintaining scientific accuracy and impact. We evaluated an AI-generated health communication material on bird flu precautions among 100 U.S. adults. The material was developed using ChatGPT for text generation based on CDC guidelines and Leonardo.AI for illustrations. Participants rated perceived message effectiveness, quality, realism, relevance, attractiveness, and visual informativeness. The AI-generated health communication material received favorable ratings across all dimensions: perceived message effectiveness (3.83/5, 77%), perceived message quality (3.84/5, 77%), realism (3.72/5, 74%), relevance (3.68/5, 74%), attractiveness (3.62/5, 74%), and visual informativeness (3.35/5 67%). Linear regression analysis revealed that all features significantly predicted perceived message effectiveness in unadjusted and adjusted models (p < 0.0001), e.g., multivariate analysis of outcome on perceived visual informativeness showed β = 0.51, 95% CI: 0.37–0.66, p < 0.0001. Also, mediation analysis revealed that visual informativeness accounted for 23.8% of the relationship between material attractiveness and perceived effectiveness. AI tools can enable real-time adaptation of prevention guidance during epidemiological emergencies while maintaining effective risk communication.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030021

Authors: Maria Pureza Ferreira Madalena Vieira-Pinto Yolanda Vaz Ana Carolina Abrantes

Knowing the specific characteristics and animal tuberculosis risk factors present and applying good practices are crucial points in combating tuberculosis (TB) in a Mediterranean multi-species scenario. The objective of this work is to statistically analyze the association between the existence of TB in areas with a marked game–livestock interface, with various complementary factors found in 30 extensive farms in southern Portugal, such as the number of animals of each large game species present in the territory and the frequency of their sightings. Collecting this information, an inferential statistical analysis was conducted to obtain information on the association type between TB occurrence in the farms and the presence of highlighted factors. The main statistical results show an association between the presence of large game species and TB occurrence in the analyzed areas. Thus, in a multi-species scenario, large game species are a crucial component in TB maintenance, namely when stricter contact occurs. This could be one of the reasons why TB continues to circulate and why the eradication process is so difficult; the risk of zoonotic transmission is evident. It is crucial to apply biosecurity tools to improve the alignment and structure of natural resource management strategies.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030020

Authors: Damaris Mulwa Benedicto Kazuzuru Gerald Misinzo Benard Bett

In Kenya, Rift Valley fever (RVF) outbreaks pose significant challenges, being one of the most severe climate-sensitive zoonoses. While machine learning (ML) techniques have shown superior performance in time series forecasting, their application in predicting disease outbreaks in Africa remains underexplored. Leveraging data from the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Kenya, this study pioneers the use of ML techniques to forecast RVF outbreaks by analyzing climate data spanning from 1981 to 2010, including ML models. Through a comprehensive analysis of ML model performance and the influence of environmental factors on RVF outbreaks, this study provides valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of disease transmission. The XGB Classifier emerged as the top-performing model, exhibiting remarkable accuracy in identifying RVF outbreak cases, with an accuracy score of 0.997310. Additionally, positive correlations were observed between various environmental variables, including rainfall, humidity, clay patterns, and RVF cases, underscoring the critical role of climatic conditions in disease spread. These findings have significant implications for public health strategies, particularly in RVF-endemic regions, where targeted surveillance and control measures are imperative. However, this study also acknowledges the limitations in model accuracy, especially in scenarios involving concurrent infections with multiple diseases, highlighting the need for ongoing research and development to address these challenges. Overall, this study contributes valuable insights to the field of disease prediction and management, paving the way for innovative solutions and improved public health outcomes in RVF-endemic areas and beyond.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030019

Authors: Marla Anggita Kyoko Hayashida Miyuka Nishizato Hiroshi Shimoda Daisuke Hayasaka

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) is an emerging tick-borne disease caused by the SFTS virus (SFTSV). A rapid and cost-effective point-of-care testing detection system is important for the early diagnosis of SFTS. Herein, we developed a ready-to-use dried reverse transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) assay for the direct detection of SFTSV in clinical samples. The assay enables simple, RNA-extraction-free detection using heat-treated serum or plasma, followed by a 30 min incubation at 65 °C. The results are visually interpreted through the color emitted, which can be observed under LED light. The established assay demonstrated detection sensitivity for SFTSV at 104 copies/µL and was effective in identifying infections in cats. Despite being less sensitive than real-time RT-PCR, this dried RT-LAMP method offers a rapid, cost-effective alternative suitable for point-of-care use, particularly in remote or resource-limited settings. The simplified workflow and visual readout make it a practical tool for the early detection and daily surveillance of SFTSV in animals.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030018

Authors: Jonathon D. Gass

In the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic and amid growing concerns regarding viral threats such as avian influenza, Mpox, and HKU5 bat coronaviruses, the phenomenon of viral zoonotic spillover, when viruses leap from circulation in non-human animals to humans, has garnered unprecedented global attention [...]

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5030017

Authors: Ronaldo Alves Pereira-Junior Isabella Marques Nascimento Maria Eduarda Barbiéri-Machado Lorena Lopes Ferreira

Zoonotic diseases are a persistent public health concern, especially in low- and middle-income countries like Brazil. This cross-sectional study evaluated the knowledge and perceptions of 132 high school students (70 public and 62 private) in Goiânia, Brazil, regarding zoonoses, using a structured questionnaire. Statistical analyses (Chi-square and Fisher’s exact tests) revealed significant differences (p < 0.05) between public and private school students in knowledge levels, pet care practices, and the awareness of zoonotic risks. While pet ownership was common in both groups, only 53% of private and 21% of public school students correctly defined “zoonosis.” Rabies, taeniasis, leptospirosis, tuberculosis, cysticercosis, cutaneous larva migrans, and leishmaniasis were the most frequently cited diseases, with private school students demonstrating greater recognition across all categories. However, most participants lacked detailed knowledge about transmission routes and prevention. Misconceptions—such as zoonoses affecting only low-income populations—were also identified. Preventive actions like sanitation, public education, and vaccination were commonly suggested but not consistently linked to zoonoses. These findings highlight critical educational gaps and emphasize the need to incorporate One Health principles into school curricula to improve youth understanding and support public health strategies for zoonosis prevention.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020016

Authors: Agata Marszałek Weronika Górska Artur Łukawski Carlo Bieńkowski Maria Pokorska-Śpiewak

Viral infections may vary from mild to severe, manifesting with a wide range of symptoms, including skin lesions, influenza-like symptoms, or meningitis/meningoencephalitis signs. Viruses that cause both skin lesions and meningitis comprise, e.g., Enteroviruses (EVs) and Herpes viruses (HV). EVs are responsible for approximately 90% of viral meningitis cases. They occur frequently among children under 3 years of age and are characterized by various types of rash. HV infections are responsible for up to 18% of viral meningitis, mostly among adults or older children. Most patients with viral meningitis recover entirely. However, the rates of serious complications and mortality may be as high as 74% and 10%, respectively, for particularly vulnerable neonatal or immunocompromised patients. Patients that present signs of encephalitis and/or are suspected to have HSV/VZV infection require immediate implementation of empiric acyclovir therapy before receiving the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test results. The clinical picture of viral meningitis may differ depending on the virus, including the presence of both meningeal signs and skin lesions. Therefore, early identification of the etiological factor is necessary for early and proper treatment implementation. It is crucial to accurately differentiate between the causative agents, and this work focuses on answering the question of how skin lesions can assist in achieving a better and faster diagnosis. The aim of this review was to analyze the characteristics of skin lesions in the course of meningitis caused by various viral species. This can be helpful for physicians in the diagnostic process and subsequent treatment.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020015

Authors: Salvador Zamora-Ledesma Norma Hernández-Camacho Jesús Luna-Cozar Robert W. Jones María Elena Villagrán-Herrera Brenda Camacho-Macías

Chagas disease, caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, is a significant health concern in Latin America, with triatomine insects serving as its primary vectors. Among them, Triatoma barberi is an important yet understudied species in Querétaro, Mexico. This study employs ecological niche modeling (ENM) to predict the potential distribution of T. barberi in the region, using occurrence records and environmental variables. The MaxEnt algorithm was used to generate the model, which was validated through AUC and TSS metrics. Results indicate that temperature seasonality and altitude are key drivers of T. barberi distribution, with high-suitability areas found in semi-urban and peri-urban zones. Additionally, six new occurrence records were documented, suggesting a growing urban presence of this species. These findings highlight the need for enhanced vector surveillance and targeted control measures to reduce the risk of Chagas disease transmission.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020014

Authors: Tobili Y. Sam-Yellowe Trinity Nims Sona Qaderi Mary M. Asraf

Colpodella species are free-living predatory protists that prey on algae, ciliates and bodonids using myzocytosis. Colpodella species have been reported in human and animal infections. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using primers targeting 18S rRNA genes of Cryptosporidium and piroplasms have identified Colpodella species in arthropods, host blood and feces, demonstrating the phylogenetic closeness of Colpodella species to the apicomplexa. However, in human, animal and arthropod hosts, the life cycle stages of Colpodella are unknown. In this literature review, we provide an overview of the widespread occurrence of Colpodella species in ticks, and pathogenicity in humans and animals. We discuss methods for culture and microscopy that can aid diagnosis. Phylogenetic tree analysis of Colpodella species identified using 18S rRNA demonstrates that the Colpodella species identified in different geographic regions represent different species and strains that may impact virulence and zoonotic transmission. There is a pressing need to culture Colpodella species, and to stain cells for morphological identification. This will aid molecular investigations aimed at identifying molecular markers of Colpodella spp. facilitating transmission, survival and pathogenesis in hosts, and will determine which species and strains to prioritize for the risk of zoonotic infections to humans and for infections in animals.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020013

Authors: Samuel Munalula Munjita John Tembo Walter Muleya Matthew Bates

Zoonotic diseases present a growing public health challenge, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) due to close interactions between humans and animals and poor diagnostic capacity. This pilot study investigated human exposure to zoonotic pathogens in Zambia among 47 suspected COVID-19 patients from whom nasopharyngeal samples were collected between November 2020 and February 2021 at two major COVID-19 referral centers in Lusaka. Using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS), the study identified a diverse range of pathogens, including bacterial, fungal, viral, and parasitic species. The prevalence of zoonotic pathogens was 57.4%. Noteworthy zoonoses included Bacillus anthracis, Sporothrix schenckii, Listeria monocytogenes, Yersinia pestis, Streptococcus suis, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Brucella melitensis, Rickettsia prowazekii, Shewanella algae, Rickettsia japonica, Coxiella burnetii, Leptospira borgpetersenii, Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae, Brucella abortus, Bartonella quintana, Banna virus, Vibrio alginolyticus, Bartonella clarridgeiae, Rickettsia canadensis, Leishmania braziliensis, Trypanosoma brucei, Pasteurella multocida, and Arcobacter butzleri. Despite moderate diversity in the microbial community, no significant demographic or health-related factors, including age, gender, or comorbidities such as HIV, were found to be statistically associated with zoonotic pathogen infection. The findings provide valuable data on the presence of zoonotic pathogens in humans in Zambia and highlight the need for more comprehensive research into zoonotic diseases in both clinical and non-clinical settings.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020012

Authors: Yujun Liu Bin Yan Hao Gong Fenyong Liu

The human coronavirus 229E (HCoV-229E) is a member of the human coronavirus family that includes SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19. Developing antiviral strategies and compounds is crucial to treat and prevent HCoV-229E infections and the associated diseases. Ribozymes derived from ribonuclease P (RNase P) catalytic RNA represent a novel class of promising gene-targeting agents by cleaving their target mRNA and knocking down the expression of the target mRNA. However, it has not been reported whether RNase P ribozymes block the infection and replication of HCoV-229E. We report here the engineering of an anti-HCoV-229E RNase P ribozyme to target an overlapping region of viral genomic RNA and the mRNA encoding the nucleocapsid (N) protein, which is vital for viral replication and growth. The engineered ribozyme actively hydrolyzed the viral RNA target in vitro. HCoV-229E-infected cells expressing the engineered, catalytically active ribozyme exhibited a reduction of about 85% in viral RNA levels and N protein expression, and a reduction of about 750-fold in infectious particle production, compared to cells expressing no ribozymes or a control, catalytically inactive ribozyme. Our study provides the first direct evidence of the therapeutic potential of RNase P ribozymes against human coronaviruses such as HCoV-229E.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020011

Authors: Alyssa R. Schwinn Sara Harris Zoe Jacobs Jane de Verges Samuel B. Jameson Dawn M. Wesson Sarah R. Michaels Kevin A. Caillouët Berlin Londoño-Renteria

Though a variety of methods are used to conduct West Nile virus (WNV) surveillance, accurate prediction and prevention of outbreaks remain a global challenge. Previous studies have established that the concentration of antibodies to mosquito saliva is directly related to the intensity of exposure to mosquito bites and can be a good proxy to determine risk of infection in human populations. To assess exposure characteristics and transmission dynamics among avian communities, we tested the levels of IgY antibodies against whole salivary glands of Aedes albopictus and Culex quinquefasciatus, as well as WNV antigen, in 300 Northern cardinals sampled from April 2019 to October 2019 in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. Though there were no significant differences in antibody responses among sex or age groups, exposure to Ae. albopictus bites was more positively associated with exposure to WNV compared with Cx. quinquefasciatus exposure (ρ = 0.2525, p < 0.001; ρ = 0.1752, p = 0.02437). This association was more pronounced among female birds (ρ = 0.3004, p = 0.0075), while no significant relationship existed between exposure to either mosquito vector and WNV among male birds in the study. In general, two seasonal trends in exposure were found, noting that exposure to Ae. albopictus becomes less intense throughout the season (ρ = −0.1529, p = 0.04984), while recaptured birds in the study were found to have increased exposure to Cx. quinquefasciatus by the end of the season (ρ = 0.277, p = 0.0468). Additionally, we report the identification of several immunogenic salivary proteins, including D7 family proteins, from both mosquito vectors among the birds. Our results suggest that Ae. albopictus may have a role in early-season transmission of WNV, particularly among brooding females and hatchling cardinals. However, bloodmeal analysis was not included in this work and further studies are needed to verify this assumption. Yet, broad circulation of WNV in nesting avian communities could enhance risk of infection among Cx. quinquefasciatus mosquitoes in the late season, with the potential to contribute to human disease incidence and epizootic spillover in the environment.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020010

Authors: Caio Graco Zeppelini

Rodent-borne diseases threaten global public health, impacting the urban poor. Despite widespread application of rodenticide in rodent/rodent-borne disease control programs, empirical evidence demonstrating their effectiveness is lacking. This review proposed guidelines for designing and implementing empirical studies on rodenticides as public health measures. The recommendations include: (i) the importance of the type of quasi-experimental design adopted, and how it creates robust evidence; (ii) how urban slums present both challenges for control and ideal settings for studies; (iii) partnering with pest control authorities and community engagement for long-term viability; (iv) leveraging zoonotic systems with direct/environmental transmission, reliable diagnosis, and high prevalence for effectivity assessment; (v) pairing human cohort studies to observe epidemiological links; (vi) systematic data collection and management protocols; (vii) short- and long-term goals for critical evaluation and course-correction; (viii) focus on mechanistic approach; (ix) the need for standardized reporting of the findings.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020009

Authors: Paul Selleck Gemma Vincent Mary Tachedjian Sandra Crameri Glenn Marsh Stephen Graves John Stenos

Active and passive surveillance, followed by gene sequencing, continue to be used to identify a diverse range of novel bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms in ticks with the potential to cause disease in vertebrate hosts following tick bite. In this study, we describe the isolation and characterization of a novel virus from Bothriocroton hydrosauri ticks collected from a blotched blue-tongue, Tiliqua nigrolutea. In an attempt to isolate rickettsia, the inoculation of Vero cell cultures with tick extracts led to the isolation of a virus, identified as a novel tick Orthomyxovirus by electron microscopy and gene sequencing. Transmission electron microscopic analysis revealed that B. hydrosauri tick virus-1 (BHTV-1) is a spherical orthomyxovirus, 85 nm in size. Multiple developmental stages of the virus were evident in vitro. Analysis of putative BHTV-1 amino acid sequences derived from a genomic analysis of virus-infected host cell extracts revealed the presence of six putative RNA segments encoding genes, sharing the closest sequence similarity to viral sequences belonging to the arthropod-borne Thogotovirus genus within the Orthomyxoviridae. Thogotoviruses are an emerging cause of disease in humans and animals following tick bite. The detection of this new thogotovirus, BHTV-1, in B. hydrosauri, a competent vector for human tick-borne infectious diseases, warrants follow-up investigation to determine its prevalence, host range, and pathogenic potential.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5020008

Authors: Fabrizio Bruschi Silvia Fabiani

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic, foodborne infection caused by Toxoplasma gondii. The infection can be transmitted through various routes, including the following: (i) the consumption of vegetables, fruits, or drinking water containing sporulated oocysts; (ii) the consumption of raw or undercooked meat; (iii) transmission from mother to fetus; (iv) through blood transfusion; and (v) transplantation of solid organs, bone marrow, or hematopoietic stem cells. Infection is generally asymptomatic or exhibits a mild clinical presentation in those with adequate immune function; however, the clinical outcomes becomes more severe in both fetal and immunocompromised individuals. In this work, we reviewed the current literature, primarily focusing on epidemiological and neurobiological aspects. Using the PubMed database, we conducted a search by combining the following terms: “Toxoplasma gondii” or “Toxoplasmosis” and “neuropsychiatric” “diseases” or “disorders” or “psychiatric” “diseases” or “disorders” or “neurological” “diseases” or “disorders” or “neurobehavioral disorders” or “behavioral disorders” or “schizophrenia” or “bipolar disorder” or “autism spectrum disorder” or “Parkinson’s disease” or “Alzheimer’s disease”. No language or time restrictions were applied in the literature review, which was concluded in April 2024. Although the literature does not yet provide definitive answers, current data should be considered sufficient to change attitudes toward toxoplasmosis prevention and treatment measures. The focus should be not only with regard to seronegative pregnant women and immunocompromised patients, but also to people particularly prone to developing neuropsychiatric diseases.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010007

Authors: Maja Lykke Brinch Ana Sofia Ribeiro Duarte Ofosuhene O. Apenteng Tine Hald

Extended-spectrum cephalosporin-resistant Escherichia coli (ESC-EC) poses a significant public health concern, with its presence increasingly detected in healthy humans and various animal species. This study explores the transmission dynamic of ESC-EC within the Danish population as well as the transmission impact of a range of food and animal sources. We developed a compartmental model encompassing farmers, pet owners, and the general population. Additionally, we applied an established source attribution model to estimate the contributions to the transmission of different sources using Danish surveillance data on the distribution of resistance genes in E. coli. Our findings highlight the central role of human-to-human transmission while also showing the significant contributions of food and animal sources to the spread of ESC-EC in sporadic human infections. Imported food, pets, and livestock were estimated to contribute importantly to human infections. The results emphasize the complexity of ESC-EC transmission dynamics and the critical value of employing a One Health approach in modeling disease transmission and in the development of targeted intervention strategies.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010006

Authors: Edson Kinimi

Marburg virus (MARV) is one of the deadliest human zoonotic pathogens, historically traced back to Uganda, in East African-cave-dwelling Egyptian fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus), the probable cradle of MARV. Since its first identification in Germany and Serbia in 1967 due to laboratory contamination, MARV has caused 18 outbreaks in humans in Sub-Saharan Africa, with the latest in Tanzania in 2025 and 2023, Rwanda in 2024, and Equatorial Guinea in 2023. Efforts to control MARV through bat extermination in Sub-Saharan Africa have been ineffective, likely due to incomplete extermination and the recolonization of infected juvenile fruit bats. Over the past two decades, extensive molecular epidemiological research has generated over 70 complete MARV genomes, enabling detailed phylogenetic analysis, though bat-derived sequences are still rare. Phylogenetic analysis of Sub-Saharan African Marburgviruses from 1975 shows clustering with sequences from humans and bats, indicating that the virus reservoir species in these regions are not considerably distinct. This review aims to consolidate MARV comprehensive genomic data to provide a clearer picture of the current Marburg virus disease situation in Sub-Saharan Africa and, in turn, highlights the need for active genomic surveillance to identify hotspots and prevent future global outbreaks.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010005

Authors: Mohamed Mustaf Ahmed Olalekan John Okesanya Zhinya Kawa Othman Adamu Muhammad Ibrahim Olaniyi Abideen Adigun Bonaventure Michael Ukoaka Muhiadin Ismail Abdi Don Eliseo Lucero-Prisno

Zoonotic diseases pose a significant global health threat, driven by factors such as globalization, climate change, urbanization, antimicrobial resistance (AMR), and intensified human–animal interactions. The increasing interconnectedness of human, animal, and environmental health underscores the importance of the OH paradigm in addressing zoonotic threats in a globalized world. This review explores the complex epidemiology of zoonotic diseases, the challenges associated with their management, and the necessity for cross-sector collaboration to enhance prevention and control efforts. Key public health strategies, including surveillance systems, infection control measures, and community education programs, play crucial roles in mitigating outbreaks. However, gaps in governance, resource allocation, and interdisciplinary cooperation hinder effective disease management, particularly in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). To illustrate the effectiveness of the OH approach, this review highlights successful programs, such as the PREDICT project, Rwanda’s National One Health Program, the EcoHealth Alliance, and the Rabies Elimination Program in the Philippines. These initiatives demonstrate how integrating human, animal, and environmental health efforts can enhance early detection, improve outbreak responses, and reduce public health burdens. Strengthening global health governance, enhancing surveillance infrastructure, regulating antimicrobial use, and investing in research and technological innovations are essential steps toward mitigating zoonotic risks. Ultimately, a coordinated, multidisciplinary approach is vital for addressing the dynamic challenges posed by zoonotic diseases and ensuring global health security in an increasingly interconnected world.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010004

Authors: Kingsley E. Bentum Emmanuel Kuufire Rejoice Nyarku Viona Osei Stuart Price Dianna Bourassa Temesgen Samuel Charlene R. Jackson Woubit Abebe

Salmonellosis in humans is a public health threat and cattle are important reservoirs for the pathogen. Cattle products such as ground beef have been linked to human salmonellosis outbreaks, and some disease investigations have been traced back to infected animal herds on farms and animal markets as the origin of infection. It is now common to isolate Salmonella from many cattle operations as the pathogen once introduced onto a farm can establish an undesirable endemic condition among herds. It is, therefore, essential to adopt measures to mitigate or prevent the introduction and spread of zoonotic disease agents like Salmonella in animal populations. With this background, the potential sources and risks of Salmonella infection in cattle, the control of already established infection, and other preventative measures are discussed in this article. We conclude that a holistic approach involving all stakeholders in cattle production is needed to safeguard public health, eventually forestalling human salmonellosis from cattle sources. In achieving this, it will be essential to consider the farm as a critical control point in preventing the introduction of Salmonella into the food chain.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010003

Authors: Edgar Manuel Cambaza

The Mpox virus (MPXV), a zoonotic pathogen from the Orthopoxvirus genus, has emerged as a significant global public health concern, especially after the unprecedented outbreak in 2022. This review synthesizes the MPXV’s molecular features, focusing on its genomic structure, replication mechanisms, immune evasion strategies, and implications for diagnostics and therapeutics. The study examines the virus’s genomic organization utilizing recent peer-reviewed literature, highlighting essential genes like OPG027 and D1L, which contribute to host adaptation, increased transmissibility, and immune evasion. Advances in molecular diagnostics, including real-time PCR and genome sequencing, are reviewed, emphasizing their critical role in outbreak monitoring and control. However, challenges persist, such as diagnostic limitations in resource-constrained settings and the lack of targeted vaccines and antivirals. This review discusses new antiviral candidates, confirmed through computational and in vitro techniques, identifying thymidine kinase and VP39 as key therapeutic targets. Emphasizing the need for genomic surveillance to track adaptive evolution, results show that particular mutations, such as in the OPG027 and D1L genes, increase the transmissibility and immune evasion of the MPXV. These molecular revelations highlight the urgent necessity for better diagnostics catered towards addressing present constraints and developing focused treatments that reduce the effect of the virus. This study emphasizes how these results underscore the need for combined public health plans to handle the changing MPXV epidemiology properly.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010002

Authors: Hao Yi Tan

The One Health approach integrates human, animal, and environmental health to address complex challenges like emerging zoonotic diseases and antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Singapore’s dense urban environment, biodiversity, and role as a global hub make it vulnerable to these health threats, necessitating a robust and coordinated One Health framework. This paper reviews Singapore’s One Health strategy, focusing on governance, surveillance, cross-sector partnerships, and public health infrastructure. A structured literature review, including peer-reviewed articles and grey literature, identified key strengths and gaps. Strengths include interagency coordination through the One Health Coordinating Committee, advanced surveillance systems like CDLENS and SIDPIC, and key institutions such as the National Centre for Infectious Diseases (NCID) and the National Public Health Laboratory (NPHL). However, gaps remain in multi-sector engagement, data-sharing mechanisms, and public awareness of One Health principles. To address these challenges, this paper recommends enhancing multi-sector collaboration, strengthening data-sharing networks, and increasing public education on One Health. Investments in preventive medicine, cross-border capacity-building, and leveraging artificial intelligence for predictive analytics are essential for bolstering Singapore’s health security. By addressing these gaps, Singapore can enhance its preparedness and serve as a global leader in One Health implementation.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis5010001

Authors: Stephen K. Wikel

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused great damage not only in terms of morbidity and mortality, but also intense social, economic, institutional and political disruptions, and costs that upended and challenged assumptions about our preparedness to deal with such global infectious disease threats [...]

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040028

Authors: Evaristo Villalba-Alemán Luciana Lima Paola Andrea Ortiz Bruno Rafael Fermino Gladys Elena Grisante Carla Monadeli Filgueira Rodrigues Letícia Pereira Úngari Néstor Añez Herakles Antonio Garcia Marta Maria Geraldes Teixeira

Bats and rodents serve as reservoirs for numerous zoonotic pathogens, including species of Trypanosoma and Leishmania. Domestic rats host the flea-transmitted Trypanosoma (Herpetosoma) lewisi, which can be associated with humans, particularly young or immunocompromised individuals. Using Fluorescent Fragment Length Barcoding (FFLB) and phylogenetic analyses based on SSU rRNA sequences, we identified two Herpetosoma species, T. lewisi-like and T. musculi-like species, in bats of different families inhabiting rooftops and peridomestic structures in Brazil (44%, 107 bats examined) and Venezuela (50%, 52 bats examined). These species are typically associated with Rattus spp. (domestic rats) and Mus musculus (house mice), respectively. Furthermore, bats were co-infected with up to five other species, including Trypanosoma dionisii, Trypanosoma cruzi marinkellei, and isolates from the Trypanosoma Neobat clade, all strongly associated with bats, and Trypanosoma cruzi and Trypanosoma rangeli, known to infect various mammals, including humans. Therefore, our findings expand the known host range of Herpetosoma to bats, marking the first report of potential spillover of Herpetosoma trypanosomes from rodents to bats and underscoring the potential for the cross-species transmission of flea-borne trypanosomes. These results highlight the need for a One Health approach to assess infection risks associated with trypanosome spillover from synanthropic rodents and bats to humans.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040027

Authors: Deepanker Tewari Manoj K. Sekhwal Mary L. Killian Corey Zellers Chrislyn Wood Nicholson Betsy Schroeder Erica Spackman Alex Hamberg

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) surveillance for influenza A virus (IAV) in the United States is conducted using a National Animal Health Laboratory Network (NAHLN) real-time reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR). Samples showing the presence of IAV are confirmed and characterized at the national reference laboratory. During the H5N1 HPAI outbreak in 2022, our laboratory reported the detection of IAV in a PA commercial chicken flock using rRT-PCR targeting the matrix gene, which was negative for the H5/H7 subtypes. IAV was not detected by additional sampling of the birds the following day with rRT-PCR. The virus detected was characterized as a human seasonal H3N2 with whole-genome sequencing (WGS). Further investigation revealed that the collector who visited the farm was diagnosed with an IAV infection. This case report emphasizes the importance of farm biosafety and biosecurity, of conducting regular reviews of worker safety protocols, and of advanced molecular techniques like WGS for viral characterization and epidemiology.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040026

Authors: Camille Renee Sonia Igboanugo Dylan Kain Andrew Peregrine Michael Klowak Andrea K. Boggild

Halicephalobus gingivalis (H. gingivalis) is a very rare opportunistic cause of fatal meningoencephalomyelitis in equids but may also cause parasitic infections in exposed humans via zoonotic transmission (from animals to humans). We herein report a 39-year-old veterinarian who was exposed to aspirated gastric contents while inserting a nasogastric tube into a horse with signs of uveitis. This procedure requires application of oral suction to the end of the tube to ensure correct placement. Histopathology of the horse’s enucleated eye later revealed H. gingivalis infection, and the horse developed acute kidney injury, ataxia, and other signs of neurological disease. The horse later progressed to death despite supportive care and administration of the broad-spectrum antiparasitic, ivermectin. Two months later, the veterinarian received prophylactic ivermectin consisting of two 200-mcg/kg doses. The patient reported feeling well and was without any systemic or focal signs or symptoms prior to this prophylactic treatment and continued feeling well when followed up at 4 months post exposure. Blood work was unremarkable, with no eosinophilia (eosinophils 0.1 × 109/L, normal <0.4 × 109/L). Meticulous hand hygiene and alternatives to unprotected oral suction should be considered in veterinary medicine as the potentially increasing risk of occupational exposure to zoonotic helminthiases makes this a public health concern.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040025

Authors: Emmanuel Kulwa Bunuma Julius Keyyu Joseph Maziku Stella Bitanyi Robert Fyumagwa Katendi Changula Benjamin Mubemba Edgar Simulundu Simbarashe Chitanga Daniel L. Horton Abel Bulamu Ekiri Walter Muleya

Background: Environmental changes impact bat–human interactions, heightening concerns of pathogen spillover and highlighting the need to understand human–bat interactions in the context of ecosystems. The objective of this study was to assess factors associated with human contact with bats in communities living near bat roosts in Northern Tanzania. Methods: A cross-sectional survey was used to investigate the factors associated with human contact with bats. Utilizing a standardized questionnaire administered through face-to-face interviews, relevant data were collected from respondents living in or near regions characterized by high bat density. Descriptive analyses followed by bivariate and multivariate analyses were performed to assess the association between the investigated factors and the outcome variable of interest, contact with bats. Results: Data were collected from 325 respondents. Of the respondents, 57.5% (187/325) reported bat contact, and only 4% believed bats can transmit rabies. The following factors were significantly associated with human–bat contact: being unaware that bats can transmit diseases like rabies (AOR = 8.63, CI = 1.04, 71.43, p = 0.045), feeling safe to handle bats with bare hands (AOR = 3.47, CI = 1.71, 7.05, p < 0.001), not washing hands thoroughly after bat bite or scratch (AOR = 2.43, CI = 1.29, 4.59, p = 0.006), using water from ponds, rivers or wells (AOR = 5.58, CI = 3.17, 9.79, p <0.001), age > 45 years (AOR = 1.77, CI = 1.0, 3.14, p = 0.047) and a low level of education (AOR = 5.86, CI = 2.97, 11.57, p <0.001). Conclusion: The study findings highlight the key factors to be targeted when developing strategies aimed at improving the community’s knowledge of the potential risks of zoonotic infectious diseases associated with bats and reducing the likelihood of human–bat contact and the related public health risks in communities living near bat roosting sites in Tanzania.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040024

Authors: Uday Turaga Steven M. Presley

Ticks are obligate hematophagous ectoparasites notorious for their role as vectors of pathogens that affect humans and animals, particularly relative to the propagation of emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). Two important factors facilitating the role of ticks in the propagation of EIDs are their potential for the development of resistance to acaricides and the expansion of nonindigenous tick species into new geographic regions. The acquisition of acaricide resistance enables tick populations to be less susceptible to vector control programs. Expansion of the geographic distribution of tick populations increases the likelihood of access to new host species as well as new pathogens. Understanding of the microbiome of ticks continues to evolve, providing critical insights into tick biology. The tick microbiome largely comprises endosymbionts, pathogenic organisms, and commensal bacteria. Endosymbionts are highly preserved and vertically transmitted in ticks from mother to offspring, and their role in the survival of ticks is well recognized. Similarly, the role of ticks as vectors of pathogens is well established. However, commensal bacteria in ticks are acquired from the environment and while ingesting a blood meal. Because many tick species spend most of their lifetime off the hosts, it can be assumed that the richness and diversity of commensal bacteria are highly variable and dependent on the ecosystem in which the tick exists. This mini-review identifies some of the critical data gaps relevant to the role of and influence of commensal bacteria on the vectorial capacity of ticks. As ticks move into new habitats, are locally acquired commensal bacteria playing a role in adaptation to the new habitat? Apart from the conventionally understood mechanisms of acaricide resistance in ticks, are the commensal bacteria influencing the development of acaricide resistance at the population level?

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040023

Authors: Sangay Rinchen Tandin Zangpo Sonam Wangchuk Sithar Dorjee Tandin Dorji Ugyen Tshering Jamyang Choden Pema Yangzom Deki Yangzom Pempa Pempa Laigdhen Dzed Dechen Wangmo Tshokey Tshokey

SARS-CoV-2 rapidly mutated, causing different waves of outbreaks worldwide. Bhutan experienced three major outbreaks of COVID-19 before experiencing the outbreak driven by the Omicron variant in January 2022. The data collected by the National Outbreak Investigation and Surveillance Team during the Delta variant-driven outbreak and Omicron outbreak were accessed and analyzed. The data were analyzed using R statistical software. Descriptive analysis was carried out for the entire dataset and the statistical comparison between the two outbreaks was carried out using student’s t-test and Pearson’s chi-square test. During the Delta variant-driven outbreak, a total of 1648 cases were reported, with a daily average of 13 cases. The highest one-day case number reported was 99. On the contrary, within 33 days, a total of 3788 cases were reported with a daily average of 115 cases during the Omicron outbreak. The highest one-day case number reported was 312. The median incubation period was 3 days (range = 0–18 days) and 1 day (range = 0–14 days) during the Delta and Omicron-driven outbreaks, respectively. The number of symptomatic cases was significantly higher during the Delta outbreak (p-value < 0.0001). Of the total cases reported during the Delta outbreak, 1175 (71.3%) had received a single dose of the vaccine, 79 (5%) received two doses, while 394 (24%) were unvaccinated. During the Omicron outbreak, 1957 (52%) cases had received their booster (third dose), 904 (23.8%) received two doses and only 40 (1%) received a single dose of the vaccine. The number of unvaccinated cases was 887 (23.4%), of which 375 (10%) were children below 12 years. Our findings corroborate the enhanced transmissibility of the Omicron variant as reported elsewhere. We report significantly less symptomatic cases during the Omicron outbreak. Further, our data show that the incubation period for the Omicron variant is shorter compared to the Delta variant (p-value < 0.0001).

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040022

Authors: Moisés Francisco Adriana Belas Sofia Santos Costa Juliana Menezes Jorge Ramos Isabel Couto Miguel Viveiros Constança Pomba

The aim of this study was to characterize the antimicrobial resistance phenotype and genotype of non-typhoidal Salmonella spp. isolated in Luanda, Angola. Between 2013 and 2015, human clinical samples, food, and environmental samples (n = 290) were collected at different regions of Luanda city and screened for the presence of Salmonella spp. Bacterial isolates were preliminarily identified using the API 20E Kit, and their identification was confirmed using PCR and serotyping. All Salmonella spp. isolates were tested by minimum inhibitory concentration against 19 antimicrobials. The isolates were also screened using PCR for the presence of resistance genes (blaOXA-1, blaSHV, blaTEM, sul1, sul2, sul3, qnrA, qnrB, qnrS, qnrC, qnrD, aac(6′)-Ib, dfrIa [targeting dfrA1, dfrA5, dfrA15, dfrA15b, dfrA16, dfrA16b] and dfrA12, cmlA, and floR) and typed using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing (MLST). Salmonella enterica non-typhoidal was detected in 21.3% of the clinical samples (n = 32/150), 11.1% of the food samples (n = 10/90), and 26% of the environmental samples (n = 13/50). Serotyping revealed that the monophasic variant of Salmonella Typhimurium (Salmonella enterica serovar 4,[5],12:i:-) was detected in 38.1% of the samples. Moreover, serovar Salmonella Enteritidis was the second most frequent. Only 7.3% of the isolates were resistant to at least one antimicrobial. Furthermore, isolates from different origins (clinical, environmental, and food) were associated with the same lineages, Salmonella Enteritidis ST11 and S. enterica ser. Typhimurium ST313. The detection of S. enterica serovar 4,[5],12:i:- in different settings reinforces the need for a One Health approach to control this zoonosis in Angola.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040021

Authors: Ahmed F. Abdelkhalek Janet M. Daly

A comparative medicine approach, whereby similarities and differences in biology between human and veterinary species are used to enhance understanding for the benefit of both, is highly relevant to the development of viral vaccines. Human and equine influenza share many similarities in pathogenesis and immune responses. The DNA vaccine approach offers potential advantages for responding rapidly and effectively to outbreaks or pandemics in both humans and animals, especially in under-resourced regions. The European and American vaccine regulatory authorities require demonstration of vaccine efficacy in animal models. However, mice, the most widely used model, are not naturally infected with influenza viruses, resulting in different pathobiology. Additionally, mice as a model for DNA vaccine testing appear to overestimate the humoral immune response compared to other mammalian species. In this review, we propose that testing of DNA vaccines against influenza type A viruses (and other shared pathogens) in the horse can provide valuable knowledge for the development of human DNA vaccines.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4040020

Authors: Chie Shitada Mikoto Moriguchi Hideyuki Hayashi Kazutoshi Matsumoto Misato Mori Eisuke Tokuoka Shunsuke Yahiro Shouichirou Gejima Kazuhiro Horiba Takatoshi Yamamoto Motohide Takahashi Makoto Kuroda

Some Corynebacterium strains produce toxins that are similar to those produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae, leading to human infections that are often transmitted through zoonotic diseases. A novel species, which is formerly classified as Corynebacterium ulcerans lineage II, was recently re-evaluated and renamed “Corynebacterium ramonii sp. nov.”. We isolated C. ramonii from a human skin ulcer in Japan in 2023 (KCU0303-001) and identified it as ST344 using a genomic analysis. In addition, C. ramonii KPHES-18084 (ST344) and six strains of C. ulcerans (ST337/ST1011) were isolated from the oral cavities of 7/208 rescued cats (3.4%). The human ulcer strain KCU0303-001 and the rescued cat strain KPHES-18084 were found to be ST344 and closely related clones by core-genome and pan-genome analyses, suggesting that ST344 may be endemic to both clinical and companion animals in Japan. In support of this finding, another clinical isolate of ST344 (TSU-28 strain) was reported in Japan in 2019. Although ST337 is the most common C. ulcerans infection, the second most recent clinical isolate of C. ramonii, ST344, might be increasing; therefore, further genomic surveillance is required to monitor C. ramonii and C. ulcerans infections.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4030019

Authors: Sarah P. Maxwell

National parks provide visitors access to hiking, camping, and the outdoors. These activities are associated with an increased risk of tick exposure. This brief report is observational, depicting case reports using raw data, and is not intended to analyze or establish risk but rather to examine geographic areas for potential future research and to identify disparities between canine and human disease reports within the same location. Locally vs. travel-acquired data are not provided by most public health departments in the U.S. Therefore, multimodal data analyses are needed for an improved understanding of disease risk. With data limitations in mind, observations from human and canine comparisons, in addition to tick presence, in this report include (1) tick-borne diseases are reported at most national park areas in the U.S., with the highest case reports in park areas located in Maine and Minnesota; (2) the average total tick-borne diseases combined (i.e., Lyme disease, ehrlichiosis, and anaplasmosis) for park areas allowing dogs is 15.34%. In comparison, the average for national parks without dogs is 8.7%, indicating the need for further study to assess human activity with pets, considering geography and ecology as potential explanatory factors; (3) canine data do not align with human data in many national park geographic areas; and (4) Ixodes scapularis presence overlaps with human and canine disease. Using multimodal data can assist with assessing risk when travel vs. local acquisition is unknown.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4030018

Authors: Peter Asaga Mac Markos Tadele Thilini Nisansala Philomena E. Airiohuodion Chibuzor M. Babalola Chukwuma Anyaike

Chikungunya and dengue are arboviral diseases transmitted by mosquitoes that have been increasingly recognized as public health concerns in Sub-Saharan Africa. Several studies conducted in Nigeria and other West African countries have revealed the seroprevalence burden and cocirculation of antibodies against mosquito-borne infections, thereby revealing a significant burden and clinical outcome complexities that have largely gone undetected. The current research study has important implications for disease surveillance, prevention strategies, and healthcare planning in Nigeria and other Sub-Saharan countries. A cross-sectional study was conducted on 871 outpatients and pregnant women from three regions of Nigeria. CHIKV and DENV immunoblot molecular diagnostic assays were used to analyze the serum samples for the presence of arboviral antibody serological markers IgG (Mikrogen Diagnostik, Germany) with DENV nonstructural protein 1 and DENV Equad and CHIKV virus-like particles (VLPs), according to the manufacturer’s instructions. A total of 871 participants were recruited from three geographical regions in Nigeria. Among them, 17.5% (152/871) were from Abia (southern Nigeria), 34.4% (300/871) were from Kaduna (northern Nigeria), and 48.1% (419/871) were from Nasarawa (central Nigeria). The ages of the participants ranged from 0 months to 80 years, with a mean age of 36.6 years. Of the 871 subjects, 71.0% (619/871) were female, and 29.0% (252/871) were male. The overall cohort detectable antibody seropositivity against CHIKV was 64.9% (565/871), 95% CI (61.74–68.06); DENV, 44.7% (389/871), 95% CI (41.41–47.99); and CHIKV-DENV cocirculation antibodies, 31.6% (95% CI 29–35). This study highlighted the unpredictably high seroprevalence, expansion, magnitude, and undetected burden of chikungunya and dengue in Nigeria.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4030017

Authors: Jiapu Zhang

Prion diseases, also called transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), are fatal neurodegenerative diseases characterised by the accumulation of an abnormal prion protein isoform (PrPSc: rich in β-sheets—about 30% α-helix and 43% β-sheet), which is converted from the normal prion protein (PrPC: predominantly α-helical—about 42% α-helix and 3% β-sheet). However, prion disease has not been reported in horses up to now; therefore, horses are known to be a species resistant to prion diseases. Residue S167 in horses has been cited as a critical protective residue for encoding PrP conformational stability in prion-resistance. According to the “protein-only” hypothesis, PrPSc is responsible for both the spongiform degeneration of the brain and disease transmissibility. Thus, understanding the conformational dynamics of PrPSc from PrPC is key to developing effective therapies. This article focuses on molecular dynamics and optimization studies on the horse PrP wild type and its S167D mutant, respectively, to understand their conformational dynamics and optimized confirmation; the interesting results will be discussed.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4030016

Authors: Anil Gautam Sirjan Bastola Keshav Lamsal Krishna Kaphle Prajjwal Shrestha Shambhu Shah Deepak Subedi

Escherichia coli in untreated milk leads to economic losses from subclinical mastitis and reduced milk production, while also posing a public health risk due to the emergence of antimicrobial resistant strains, particularly associated with consuming unpasteurized milk and dairy products. This study aimed to determine the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance (AMR) of E. coli isolated from buffalo milk in Siddarthanagar Municipality of Rupandehi district, Nepal. A total of 102 milk samples were collected from lactating buffaloes. The isolation and identification of E. coli were carried out using enrichment media, selective media, and biochemical tests. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was carried out using the Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method on Mueller–Hinton agar (Merck), according to the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) recommendations. Resistance was tested against gentamicin, amikacin, ciprofloxacin, enrofloxacin, ceftriaxone, ceftazidime, cotrimoxazole, and chloramphenicol. In addition to this, farmers were administered a questionnaire consisting of both open- and close-ended questions to identify various animal-related and management-related risk factors associated with the prevalence of E. coli. The prevalence of E. coli in our study was 29.4% (n = 30/102). Ceftriaxone and ceftazidime showed 100% resistance, while cotrimoxazole and amikacin showed 86.7% and 80% resistance, respectively. Furthermore, 86.7% of E. coli isolates were multidrug resistant (MDR). Despite suggestive trends, associations between E. coli prevalence and risk factors lacked statistical significance, necessitating further research. While some antibiotics exhibited effectiveness, many faced resistance, highlighting the need for prudent antimicrobial usage and increased awareness among farmers. Raising awareness about milk pasteurization and implementing food safety practices is essential for ensuring farmers and public health.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4020015

Authors: Gleydis García Anakena M. Castillo Publio González Blas Armien Luis C. Mejía

Emerging zoonotic diseases are one of the main threats to human and animal health. Among the agents with the potential for zoonoses, those of bacterial origin have great relevance in Public Health. Rodents are considered one of the main reservoirs of pathogens that represent a risk to human health or animal species. We used massive 16S ribosomal RNA gene amplicon sequencing to survey bacteria present in the spleen of six species of rodents in Panama in order to identify bacterial taxa with zoonotic potential in the country. We found 3352 bacterial Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs, i.e., phylogenetic species) in the spleen of six rodent species surveyed (Liomys adspersus, Melanomys caliginosus, Mus musculus, Proechimys semispinosus, Rattus rattus, Zygodontomys brevicauda). This bacterial community was represented by 25 phyla, 55 classes, 140 orders, 268 families, and 508 genera. The three predominant phyla were Actinobacteria, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria, and the five predominant classes were Actinobacteria, Alpha- and Gammaproteobacteria, Bacilli, and Clostridia. There were seven high-abundance genera: Acinetobacter, Bartonella, Cutibacterium, Enterococcus, Sarcina, Staphylococcus, and Wolbachia. Genera found with less abundance included Bradyrhizobium, Chryseobacterium, Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Lactobacillus, Pseudonocardia, Rhodococcus, and Sphingomonas. Some of these genera (high or low abundance) have clinical importance. The identification of bacterial taxa with zoonotic potential in rodent species performed here allows us to have surveillance mechanisms for these pathogens and to be able to recognize localities to be prioritized for prevention of transmission and outbreaks, thus being of value for public health in Panama.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4020014

Authors: Mohamed El Sayes Rebecca Badra Mohamed A. Ali Rabeh El-Shesheny Ghazi Kayali

Bat coronaviruses cause a wide range of illnesses in humans and animals. Bats are known to harbor a wide diversity of Alphacoronaviruses and Betacoronaviruses. Betacoronaviruses have been linked to Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS), and other diseases such as gastroenteritis, bronchiolitis, and pneumonia. In the last 20 years, three betacoronaviruses emerged and caused widespread outbreaks in humans, including two deadly betacoronavirus epidemics, SARS-CoV, with mortality rate of 10%, and MERS-CoV, with mortality rate of 34.7%, and SARS-CoV-2, which caused the COVID-19 pandemic, with mortality rate of 3.4%. Studies have shown that bats are the main natural reservoirs for these viruses or their ancestral viruses. Observed variations in bat coronavirus genomes indicate that these viruses may have a potential to transmit to other hosts in close contact with humans and subsequently transmit to humans. As of today, there are no reported cases of direct coronavirus transmission from bats to humans. One reason for this might be that intermediate hosts are required for the transmission of bat coronaviruses to humans. Further studies are needed to map the amino acids and genomic regions responsible for the interactions between the spike of coronavirus and its receptors.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4020013

Authors: Vedasto Bandi Bernard Ngowi Emmanuel Mpolya Andrew Martin Kilale John-Mary Vianney

Background: Taeniosis and cysticercosis are human infections caused by the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium. This study is a baseline for community-based intervention. We determined the prevalence of human cysticercosis and associated risk factors following a deworming program conducted throughout the country, with Mbulu District being among the districts in Northern Tanzania. Methods: Human cysticercosis was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag- ELISA). Household interviews and observations were conducted to identify risk factors for cysticercosis transmissions among households and communities. Results: Three hundred individuals participated in this study. The age ranged from 5 to 89 years, with a median of 19 years. The prevalence of human cysticercosis was 23 (7.67%). The prevalence was high with 6 (11.76%) among individuals aged 26 to 35 years and ±45 years. There was no statistically significant difference in the prevalence by age group, sex, or occupation. Among the 300 participants, 82 (27.3%) had received anthelmintics during the previous year; among these, 5 (21.7%) were infected. The likelihood of infection was low among anthelmintic users by 28% [0.72 (0.26–2.01)], but the protection was not significant. The communities differed in risk factors on the availability of a clean and safe water supply; 52.7% (46/86) of households visited had no pit latrine. The cysticercosis prevalence showed a significant difference in communities. Conclusions: The prevalence of human cysticercosis was high and associated with higher age groups. The prevalence was low among those who had taken anthelmintics and was associated with lower age groups. The current school deworming program has a positive effect on school children, while the elderly are at higher risk because the intervention did not target them. It is recommended to scale up anthelmintic intervention to higher age groups.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4020012

Authors: Kush Kumar Yadav Jacob D. Hofstetter Scott P. Kenney

Paslahepevirus balayani and Rocahepevirus ratti are genetically diverse species of hepatitis E virus [HEV]. Previously, only members of the Paslahepevirus genus were known to infect humans but recently some Rocahepevirus members have been found to be infectious to both immunocompromised and immunocompetent humans. Paslahepevirus balayani genotypes (gt) 1, 2, and 4 are known for their detrimental effects during pregnancy, causing pregnancy-related disorders. Recent findings have demonstrated the ability of Paslahepevirus balayani gt3 to replicate within placental cell lines, suggesting a direct effect on the placenta and fetus. To study whether zoonotic rat HEV strains possess a similar human-host placental tropism, we utilized JEG-3 cells to understand the replicative ability of an infectious clone of a recently reported strain of Rocahepevirus ratti, the LCK-3110 strain. Infectious cDNA clones of Pasla-, Avi-, and Rocahepevirus were transcribed and then, transduced into JEG-3 cells. Cells were harvested, and cell lysates were used for testing infectivity. Five days post-transfection or after inoculation onto naive HepG2/C3A cells, the cells were analyzed for infection. Replication in transduced JEG-3 cells and the infection potential in HepG2/C3A cells were assessed via an indirect immunofluorescence assay and a flow-cytometry assay. We found that the Rocahepevirus ratti LCK-3110 strain did not have efficient replication in JEG-3 cell cultures.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010011

Authors: Aline Padilha de Fraga Vinicius Proença da Silveira Patrícia de Freitas Salla Fernanda Gass de Oliveira Goulart André Felipe Streck Vagner Reinaldo Zingalli Bueno Pereira Lauren Santos de Mello André Salvador Kazantzi Fonseca Nilo Ikuta Vagner Ricardo Lunge

Leishmania infantum is a hemopathogen of importance for the health of domestic dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), causing canine leishmaniasis (CanL), and it is also the etiological agent of human visceral leishmaniasis (HVL). This parasite was not reported in southern Brazil until the early 2000s, but CanL and HVL were increasingly reported in the last 15 years, mainly in cities bordering Argentina. The present study aimed to detect L. infantum in domestic dogs and to determine the main clinical manifestations in infected animals from Uruguaiana, a city with a high incidence of CanL. Fifty-one dogs suspected of having CanL in the urban perimeter of the city were clinically examined by veterinarians and investigated for the occurrence of L. infantum with two immunoassays (rapid chromatography test and ELISA) and real-time PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Clinical signs were compared in positive and negative L. infantum animals. A total of 31 dogs (60.8%) were infected with L. infantum. The main clinical manifestations associated with CanL dogs were onychogryphosis and peeling (p < 0.05). L. infantum was frequently detected in urban dogs from Uruguaiana, highlighting the concerning situation regarding health in this city. The occurrence of some clinical signs (onychogryphosis/peeling) could help to detect CanL more frequently in the canine population.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010010

Authors: Lateef Olabisi Okeleji Lydia Oluwatoyin Ajayi Aduragbemi Noah Odeyemi Victor Amos Bosede Grace Akanbi Moyinoluwa Comfort Onaolapo Bolade Sylvester Olateju Wale Johnson Adeyemi Ayodeji Folorunsho Ajayi

Bacterial zoonotic diseases hold significant public health importance due to their substantial contribution to human morbidity and mortality. These infections have been implicated in reducing the fertility rate among couples of reproductive age. Despite the increasing prevalence of infertility and sub-fertility in men, there has been limited investigation into the possible effects of bacterial zoonotic infections on the male reproductive system. The purpose of this review is to describe common bacterial zoonotic diseases and their effects on human reproduction in order to unveil the hidden roles these infections could play in male factor infertility. While there is a dearth of information on this subject from human studies, available evidence from experimental animals suggests that bacterial zoonotic diseases impair male reproductive functions and structures primarily through the activation of the inflammatory response and distortion of the antioxidant system, resulting in the generation of oxidative species. In light of the limited research on bacterial zoonotic diseases and their role in male reproduction, efforts must be directed towards the subject to unravel the underlying pathological mechanisms and reduce the incidence among the human populace, either through preventive or curative measures.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010009

Authors: Rebecca Badra Alaa Hamdallah Nour Abu Elizz Majid Hawawsheh Heba Mahrous Amgad Abdalla Elkholy Abdinasir Abubakar Mohammad Alhawarat Lora Alsawalha Ghazi Kayali

Zoonotic disease surveillance and response simulation exercises are an important tool to assess national infrastructures and mechanisms supporting joint zoonotic disease surveillance and information sharing across sectors. In December 2022, the Jordanian Ministries of Health and Agriculture, supported by the World Health Organization Country Office, conducted a 10-day full-scale simulation exercise in Amman, Jordan, to evaluate the linkage between their electronic surveillance and response systems. An exercise management team designed a realistic fictitious scenario of an outbreak of avian influenza on a poultry farm that subsequently led to human infections. The functions and actions tested included all aspects of outbreak management, from initial reporting to conclusion. Debriefings and an after-action review were conducted after the activities were completed. Gaps in both ministries’ surveillance systems, epidemiological investigations, biosafety and biosecurity, sample collection, sample transport, laboratories, interventions, and coordination were identified. This simulation exercise was a unique exercise focusing on multiple technical and operational capacities that related to the joint response to potential zoonotic disease outbreaks and real-time information sharing between the sectors under the One Health approach. This exercise is a step towards the operationalization of the One Health approach in Jordan, building on the coordination mechanisms already in place.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010008

Authors: Elaine Hellen Nunes Chagas Julia Rezende da Silva Bruno de Cássio Veloso de Barros José Wandilson Barbosa Duarte Júnior Fabiolla da Silva dos Santos Edivaldo Costa Sousa Júnior Delana Andreza Melo Bezerra Maria Inês dos Santos Helder Henrique Costa Pinheiro Yashpal Singh Malik Joana D’Arc Pereira Mascarenhas

This study aimed to detect picobirnavirus (PBV) in the fecal samples of wild and domestic animals from 2014 to 2016 in the Amazon biome. Fecal samples from different animals, including birds (n = 41) and mammals (n = 217), were used. The PAGE test showed negativity for PBV. However, 32 samples (12.4%, 32/258) showed positive results in RT-PCR analyses. Among the positive samples, pigs and cats, both with 28.12% (9/32), registered the highest frequencies. In a phylogenetic analysis, eight sequences from positive samples were grouped in the Genogroup 1 of PBV (PBV GI). PBV occurrence was significantly related to cats and pigs but not other mammals or birds, independently of their geographical origin. A nucleotide analysis demonstrated similarity among the feline group but the absence of a defined structure between the clades. PBVs are highly widespread viruses that can affect the most diverse types of hosts in the Amazon biome, including humans.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010007

Authors: Anne Schnepf Katja Hille Gesine van Mark Tristan Winkelmann Karen Remm Katrin Kunze Reinhard Velleuer Lothar Kreienbrock

Two-thirds of human infectious diseases are zoonotic diseases and routine data collections exist for each sector (human, veterinary, environmental). However, these operate separately and the collected data are not integrated across sectors. Publicly available information on these routine data collections in terms of metadata and the information collected is sparse. The aim was to create an inventory of routine data collections in the Federal State of Lower Saxony, Germany. A systematic screening of existing routine data collections from the human and veterinary sectors on zoonotic infectious diseases was carried out on the basis of expert interviews. A standardised template was used to collect relevant metadata on data collections and pathogens they contain. The template was transferred to Research Electronic Data Capture tools. We recorded metadata for 19 veterinary, 16 human and 2 other data collections, and for 69 different zoonotic pathogens. The frequencies of a selection of metadata were analysed descriptively. The data collections, which served different purposes, differed, e.g., in underlying population and sampling strategy, export format and access to the original data. We identified challenges for integrated analyses of data from different collections, which need to be addressed to develop a One Health monitoring and surveillance system.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010006

Authors: Fabrizia Valleriani Andrea Polci Federica Iapaolo Ottavio Portanti Maura Pisciella Antonella Cersini Annalisa Guercio Irene Del Lesto Valentina Curini Luana Fiorella Mincarelli Francesca Gucciardi Claudio De Liberato Giuseppa Purpari Giorgia Amatori Daniela Morelli Giovanni Savini Federica Monaco

West Nile virus (WNV) (Flaviviridae, Flavivirus) infection is a mosquito-borne zoonosis able of causing disease and death in humans and animals. Over the past decade, WNV infections have been a significant public health concern in Europe, and Italy has been among the most affected countries since 2008. The 2022 vector season has been characterized by an intense and early circulation of WNV. This report describes cases of co-circulation of WNV L1 and of WNV L2 occurring at the end of the 2022 vector season in Sicily and Tuscany, regions where no strains had ever been sequenced. The phylogenetic analysis of the detected strains confirmed the peculiar WNV scenario that has characterized the Italian West Nile disease (WND) epidemic since its appearance. The circulation observed in Tuscany was in fact a consequence of the spread of endemic strains to new areas while the Sicilian episodes were linked to new introductions of WNV L1 and L2 strains likely from other European countries.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010005

Authors: Prisca N. Kahangwa Amani S. Kitegile Robert S. Machang’u Ginethon G. Mhamphi Abdul S. Katakweba

Leptospirosis, also known as Weil’s disease, is a febrile tropical disease of humans and diverse animals. The maintenance hosts of the infectious pathogen, Leptospira spp., are primarily rodents, while other warm-blooded animals and some reptiles are secondary or transient hosts of this pathogen. African giant pouched rats (Cricetomys spp.) have been identified to be important maintenance hosts of pathogenic leptospires in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. This study assessed the seroprevalence of Leptospira spp. in the African giant pouched rats of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), Tanzania, where there is close human, domestic animal, and wildlife interaction. A total of 50 African giant pouched rats were sampled between July 2020 and December 2021. Blood sera were screened for specific leptospiral antibodies using a microscopic agglutination test (MAT), while urine and kidney tissues were examined for the pathogen and pathogen-specific genes using cultures and polymerase chain reactions (PCR), respectively. The pathogen detection varied from 0% in cultures to 6% via the MAT and 20% via PCR. The Fisher exact test was applied to compare positive cases detected through the diagnostic tests, and showed a significant difference in the indirect and direct detection of Leptospira serovars via the MAT and PCR. We conclude that pathogenic Leptospira serovar are found in the NCA and recommend that the NCA authority raises awareness of the existence of the Leptospira serovar in giant African pouched rats, and possibly other rodents. The NCA should initiate appropriate management strategies, including the guided disposal of household garbage, which is the major attractant of rodents to residential areas. Where necessary, the NCA should carry out limited rodent control and periodic monitoring of the pathogen carrier (rodent) populations.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010004

Authors: Marilyn Cox Mario Levesque

Lyme disease patient organizations have formed to challenge a health system that is failing Canadians who suffer from a disease that is ambiguous in its symptomology and trajectory. The framework of an embodied health movement illustrates the importance of the illness experience in mobilizing patients to oppose a system that is reliant on restrictive guidelines that deny testing and treatment and to seek alliances with researchers, physicians, and politicians who are sympathetic to their goals. The strategies of Lyme disease patient organizations, the importance of experiential knowledge, and the roles of both adversaries and allies are examined through a “small wins” approach to gauge successes and setbacks within a Canadian context.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010003

Authors: Arpita Aditya Dita Julianingsih Zajeba Tabashsum Zabdiel Alvarado-Martinez Chuan-Wei Tung Matthew Wall Debabrata Biswas

Microbial ecology on integrated crop–livestock farms (ICLFs) can impact food safety through pathogen transfer between animals and crops. Recent reports of pathogen-contaminated products sold in local organic retail, roadside, and farmers markets highlight the need for assessment of the ecological patterns of bacterial pathogens. This study investigated the prevalence and antibiotic resistance of the virulent type of diarrheagenic E. coli in ICLFs. Over two years, 2973 samples from ICLFs and markets in Maryland and Washington DC were analyzed. Diarrheagenic E. coli was found in 4.30% (128/2973) of collected samples, with a higher isolation rate in environmental (4.42%, 59/1332) and produce (4.20%, 69/1641) samples. Overall, livestock bedding materials had the highest prevalence (8.51%, 4/47). Post-harvest produce exhibited a lower contamination rate of 1.32% (10/756), whereas pre-harvest produce had a higher incidence with 6.67% contamination (59/885), indicating the presence of E. coli. Alarmingly, 92.30% (72/78) of pathogenic E. coli isolates were resistant to common antibiotics. The findings highlight potential risks associated with integrated farming practices and emphasize the importance of safe harvesting and post-harvesting measures, particularly in the context of the growing popularity of local integrated farming. Implementing precautions at on-farm and market levels is crucial to mitigate the risk of antibiotic-resistant E. coli-related enteric illnesses, safeguarding both consumers and the integrity of integrated farming systems.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010002

Authors: Stephen K. Wikel

The public awareness of zoonotic pathogens as well as the threats they pose to global public health have grown significantly, since the emergence of SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic [...]

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis4010001

Authors: Doniddemberel Altantogtokh Bazartseren Boldbaatar Graham Matulis Abigail A. Lilak Nyamdorj Tsogbadrakh Bayasgalan Chimedtseren Khatanbold Ariunbold Michael E. von Fricken

Rabies is a highly fatal zoonotic disease that causes an estimated 60,000 human deaths each year, many of which occur in Africa and Asia where the disease is likely underreported. Uncontrolled transmission of rabies presents a major threat to public health in countries such as Mongolia, where 26% of the population lives a pastoralist lifestyle characterized by increased interaction with livestock animals. Here, we report a case of rabies exposure in a six-year-old male after being bitten by a horse in both the head region and the leg. At the suspicion of rabies, post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) was initiated, with the patient receiving four doses of PEP vaccine as well as a single treatment of rabies immunoglobulin. The horse was later confirmed to be rabies-positive through rapid antigen testing and RT-PCR. Human rabies exposure from horses is unusual within Mongolia, given that historically over 70% of human rabies cases within the country are attributed to dogs, wolves, or foxes. This case further emphasizes the need for more routine vaccination of domestic animals within Mongolia. Additionally, animal bites, even from animals not frequently associated with rabies, should be treated as possible rabies exposure events.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040026

Authors: Alberto Espí Ana del Cerro Paloma Peón-Torre José Vicente González-Escudero Aitor Somoano

Migratory and local birds may disperse ticks and their associated pathogens. The aim of this study was to provide information regarding ticks infesting birds in Asturias, a region that accounts for most of the Lyme disease hospitalizations in Spain. From September 2021 to April 2023, trained and experienced bird-banders collected ticks from birds in two estuary and four forest locations. A total of 1698 birds (52 species, 38 genera, and 26 families) were captured. A total of 51 ticks (28 larvae, 20 nymphs, and 3 females) were collected from 43 birds, belonging to three species: Ixodes ricinus (31), Ixodes frontalis (18), and Haemaphysalis concinna (1). The average prevalence of tick infestation was 2.5% and the average tick burden was 1.2 ticks per infested host. The bird species Turdus merula, Parus major, Luscinia svecica, and Anthus pratensis were among the most infested. Anaplasma phagocytophilum was detected in one I. ricinus nymph collected from Phylloscopus collybita. We have not detected Borrelia burgdorferi s.l., Rickettsia spp., Coxiella burnetii, or piroplasmids in any of the 51 analyzed ticks. These results suggest low infestation rate in migratory/estuary birds and a higher rate in forest/sedentary ones. Despite this, the detection of pathogens, although with low prevalence, can pose a risk to public health.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040025

Authors: Ana Carolina Abrantes João Canotilho Madalena Vieira-Pinto

The microbiological contamination of wild boar meat depends on the hygiene practices that hunters apply during its preparation, from the point of collection to its refrigeration. This study assesses Portuguese hunters’ knowledge of hygiene practices when handling wild boar carcasses that can jeopardise meat safety. A general structured survey entitled “Private consumption of game meat and good hygiene practices” was distributed to Portuguese hunters. Of the 206 respondents, 95% use wild boar meat for private consumption without prior inspection or initial examination by a veterinarian. This study also revealed that the vast majority of respondents have several risky practices that can compromise the safety of wild boar meat consumed (evisceration, handling, refrigeration, and transport). It is also evident that there is a lack of knowledge related to recognising lesions compatible with zoonotic infections in the hunted animals. These inappropriate knowledge and practices can pose a risk to hunters (occupational zoonotic health) and consumers (foodborne diseases). To reduce this risk, hunters need to be trained and informed about proper game meat handling practices.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040024

Authors: Dorcas Chepyatich Derrick Noah Sentamu Nicholas Bor Joshua Onono Peter Baaro Gathura James M. Akoko Lian Francesca Thomas

Toxoplasma gondii is a ubiquitous protozoan parasite of public health concern, with severe health consequences among immunocompromised individuals and pregnant mothers. Pigs are intermediate hosts of this zoonotic parasite and consumption of undercooked pork is a risk factor for T. gondii infection. We investigated the seroprevalence and risk factors for T. gondii in pigs in Kenya. A cross-sectional study was conducted at a non-integrated abattoir in Kiambu, Kenya, where 446 blood samples were collected from slaughtered pigs between 5 January and 5 March 2021. For each pig sampled, additional data were collected on the county of origin, farm size, sex and live weight. Serum was harvested from each pig blood sample, and these were subjected to indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay tests to detect the presence of immunoglobin G (IgG) for T. gondii infection. The overall seroprevalence for T. gondii was 34.53% (95% C.I. 30.16–39.17). Risk factors for T. gondii seropositivity in pigs included farm size (p < 0.001) and the live weight of pigs (p = 0.044). The high seroprevalence of T. gondii indicates that consumers of raw and undercooked pork may be at a high risk of infection. It is therefore recommended that strategies for the mitigation of risk of exposure in populations should prioritize public health education for pig farmers, pork handlers and consumers on risk reduction measures along the pork value chains.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040023

Authors: Matteo Riccò Silvia Corrado Federico Marchesi Marco Bottazzoli

Human cases of fatal encephalitis caused by Borna disease virus 1 (BoDV-1) have been increasingly reported. We envisaged the present systematic review in order to provide a comprehensive summary of clinical features associated with BoDV-1 encephalitis. Systematic research of four databases (PubMed, EMBASE, MedRxiv, BioRxiv) was performed during July 2023, and corresponding clinical and epidemiological data were collected and analyzed. A total of 37 BoDV-1 encephalitis cases from 15 different study cases and two countries (Germany, No. 35; France, No. 2) were detected, and their features were summarized (case fatality ratio, 91.9%). Age distribution followed a “U-shaped” distribution, with a first peak in individuals younger than 14 years (18.9%) and the second one in subjects older than 50 years (43.2%). Environmental risk factors were irregularly reported, but 17 out of 37 cases either lived in rural areas or reported repeated outdoor activities (45.9%). Interaction with pets and livestock was reported in eight cases (21.6%), stressing the zoonotic potential of BoDV-1 infections. Moreover, 16.2% of cases were reported among recipients of solid organ transplantations (five kidneys; one liver). Overall survival in children/adolescents vs. adults (≥18 years) was not significantly different (Hazard Ratio 0.878; 95% Confidence Interval from 0.366 to 2.105). Magnetic Resonance Imaging identified the involvement of basal ganglia, mostly of the caudate nucleus (42.4%) and thalamus (33.3%). Cerebrospinal fluid was often characterized by pleocytosis (78.4%). On the other hand, no distinctive clinical features were identified: initial symptoms were specific and included headache, fever, and confusion. In conclusion, BoDV-1 infection can result in fatal encephalitis, whose actual burden still remains unascertained. As the epidemiology of BoDV-1 is similarly elusive, encephalitis cases of unclear cause should be routinely tested for bornaviruses.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040022

Authors: Prudence Masanga Sarapia Paul Peter Mbelele Peter Daud Alphonce Liyoyo Lidia Munuo Samson Lyimo Beatus Lyimo Sreenidhi Srinivasan Isabella Cattadori Robab Katani Vivek Kapur Stella Mpagama Joram Buza

Tuberculosis (TB) results from infection with members of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) and represents a major global public health concern. We here sought to assess the perceptions of human and animal TB and the prevalence of circulating MTBCs lineages and associated risk factors through a cross-sectional survey of 335 individuals presenting with symptoms of pulmonary or extrapulmonary TB in the Manyara region of Tanzania. After the enrollment of participants, a questionnaire survey was conducted, samples were collected for bacterial culture, and real-time multiplex PCR was performed to differentiate amongst primary animal and human MTBC lineages. The results show poor TB awareness: 31.6% of the participants were not aware of human TB; 82.4% were unaware of animal TB and 95.2% lacked awareness of zoonotic TB (zTB) transmission. A total of 18 recovered specimens (5%; 95% CI: 3–8%) were positive by culture, all of which were typed as M. tuberculosis sensu stricto using a lineage-specific PCR assay. While no single risk factor was significantly associated with MTBC culture positivity, the survey revealed considerable self-reported high-risk practices for contracting zTB. Together, the results show that Manyara residents have poor knowledge of diseases caused by MTBCs and high evidence of risky practices for contracting zTB.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3040021

Authors: Jérôme Ateudjieu Joseph Nelson Siewe Fodjo Calson Ambomatei Ketina Hirma Tchio-Nighie Anne-Cecile Zoung Kanyi Bissek

Frequent animal–human interactions in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) pose an increased risk for the transmission of zoonotic diseases. While there are sporadic reports of zoonotic diseases outbreaks in SSA, a synthetic overview is necessary to better understand how the sub-region is impacted by these pathologies. We conducted a systematic review of zoonotic diseases studies conducted in SSA between 2000 and 2022. Quantitative reports including case reports/series from countries spanning West, Central, East, and Southern SSA and that provided empirical data on the occurrence of zoonotic diseases in humans with documented evidence of animal origin were eligible for inclusion. The 55 eligible articles provided 82 reports of zoonotic diseases for a total of 28,934 human cases (pooled attack rate: 54.4 per 1000) and 1182 deaths (pooled fatality rate: 345.4 per 1000). Only 31 (37.8%) of the studies were conducted during ongoing outbreaks. We identified the zoonotic diseases in SSA with the highest attack rates (rickettsiosis, toxoplasmosis, Q-fever) and CFR (Marburg, Ebola, leptospirosis), which should be prioritized for surveillance and response preparedness. Addressing the threat of zoonotic diseases in SSA requires the strengthening of health systems and implementation of a one health approach. Importantly, research should be encouraged during ongoing epidemics to fortify immediate response strategies and work toward preventing future outbreaks.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030020

Authors: Heather Bayko Sarah Watkins Sheldon Waugh Gerald Moore Sara B. Mullaney

The U.S. Army Veterinary Services (AVS) provides public health guidance, consultation, and clinical support regarding zoonoses for the Department of Defense (DoD). AVS One Health Division was tasked with developing a surveillance tool for zoonoses of companion animals presenting to DoD veterinary facilities. Such a tool could help monitor the spread of zoonoses between U.S. military Service Members, their family members, and their pets. The primary objective was to prioritize zoonoses of interest for companion animal disease surveillance in the DoD. AVS implemented a semi-quantitative One Health approach to prioritize zoonoses of interest. The prioritization process followed five steps: (1) generate list of zoonoses to be ranked that are applicable to a DoD companion animal disease surveillance system, (2) develop criteria to identify the importance of a zoonoses, (3) develop criteria definition questions, (4) rank criteria, and (5) rank zoonoses. The prioritization process resulted in a ranked list of 14 zoonoses of interest which was presented to AVS leadership with three potential courses of action. Twelve zoonoses were selected for inclusion in DoD Companion Animal Disease Surveillance. The prioritized list of diseases was the first step in developing a DoD companion animal disease surveillance effort. Mirroring such an approach in civilian companion animal populations could fill a critical public health gap.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030019

Authors: Amina Ramadhani Issae Abdul Selemani Katakweba Rose Peter Kicheleri Augustino Alfred Chengula Marco van Zwetselaar Christopher Jacob Kasanga

Globally, zoonoses have serious consequences due to their socioeconomic impacts. Ngorongoro District is home to a diverse range of wildlife and domestic animals, including rodents and dogs, which often coexist in close proximity with humans. The aim of the study was to identify the zoonotic bacteria present in wild rodents, domestic dogs, and humans using metagenomics next-generation sequencing technology. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2022. This study used both Illumina and Oxford Nanopore sequencing technologies to identify bacteria in 530 blood samples collected from humans (n = 200), wild rodents (n = 230), and dogs (n = 100). Several zoonotic airborne/contagious bacteria, including Mycobacterium spp., Mycoplasma spp., Bordetella spp., and Legionella spp., were detected in wild rodents, domestic dogs, and humans. Arthropod-borne zoonotic bacteria such as Bartonella spp., Borrelia spp., and Rickettsia spp. were detected in all three hosts, while Orientia spp. was found in wild rodents and domestic dogs. Yersinia pestis, Streptobacillus spp. and Anaplasma spp. were found only in wild rodents. Other zoonotic bacteria found shared among wild rodents, domestic dogs, and humans are Leptospira spp., Brucella spp., and Salmonella spp. Generally, wild rodents had the highest prevalence of zoonotic bacterial species when compared to domestic dogs and humans. The detection of zoonotic bacteria in rodents, dogs, and humans supports the hypothesis that infections can spread between animals and humans sharing the same environment.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030018

Authors: Bernal León Josimar Estrella-Morales Carlos Jiménez

Alphavirus species are globally distributed zoonoses primarily transmitted by arthropods. The Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus (VEEV) and Eastern equine encephalitis virus (EEEV) are endemic in Costa Rica. This study aims to detect these viruses in brain samples from equines displaying nervous signs. For this purpose, four published Universal RT-PCR methods were compared. The most sensitive and specific RT-PCR method was used to test a total of 70 brain samples, including 40 from bovines and 30 from equines, all exhibiting nervous signs. In the positive cases, eight different brain regions were extracted and tested using this RT-PCR. Positive cases were confirmed through sequencing. Torii RT-PCR demonstrated the highest sensitivity and specificity for diagnosing VEEV and EEEV/Sind among the four Universal RT-PCR assays. Not all assessed brain regions showed DNA amplification. None of the bovine brains was positive, and out of the 30 equine brain samples, only four tested positive, and sequencing confirmed two of these samples as VEEV subtype IE. Torii RT-PCR successfully detected VEEV in pools of the hippocampus, spinal cord, and basal nuclei, making these brain regions suitable for diagnosing this virus. None of the samples were positive for EEEV or WEEV.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030017

Authors: Sanju Subedi Kishor Adhikari Devraj Regmi Hari Krishna Sharma Nishakiran Bolakhe Milan Kandel Deepak Subedi

In many developing countries, where rabies is prevalent among dog populations, humans are at risk of contracting the disease. Recent reports from Nepal suggest that around 30,000 cases of pet and more than 100 human rabies cases occur each year, with the highest risk being in the Terai, although these numbers may be underestimated. Knowledge and practices related to rabies prevention are crucial in combating the disease. However, there is not enough data on the understanding and preventive measures of rabies among the local population in Nepal. Therefore, this study aimed to evaluate the knowledge and practices regarding rabies prevention among the people of Bharatpur-12, Chitwan, Nepal. The study, conducted in February 2022, involved a cross-sectional survey of 271 respondents selected through systematic random sampling. A semi-structured questionnaire was used for one-on-one interviews. Among the surveyed respondents, a significant proportion (81.50%; n = 221/271) correctly understood rabies is zoonotic disease. Furthermore, 73.10% (n = 198/271) could correctly identify the animals susceptible to rabies, while 39.9% (n = 108/271) knew the causative agent. Additionally, 46.5% accurately listed the modes of transmission, and a majority (86.70%; n = 235/271) recognized the signs and symptoms of rabies in animals and humans. Overall, 42.06% (n = 114/271) of the respondents demonstrated satisfactory knowledge. Out of the 271 respondents, 22.9% (n = 62) owned pets, and 39.11% (n = 106) reported incidents of animal bites within their families, with dog bites being the most commonly mentioned (92.46%; n = 98/106). The majority (81.14%; n = 86/106) sought treatment on the same day as the incident occurred. About half of them (50%; n = 53/106) cleaned the wound with soap and water, while a small percentage (5.66%; n = 6/106) relied on traditional medicine as immediate first aid after an animal bite. The level of knowledge was found to be associated with gender (p = 0.04), educational status (p = 0.05), and family monthly income (p = 0.007). These findings highlight the importance of educating the community in Nepal about rabies control and prevention measures and underscore the need for targeted educational interventions to improve rabies awareness and the potential of effective awareness campaigns to save lives. Raising awareness about health-seeking behavior and community members’ role in controlling, preventing, and eliminating rabies is crucial.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030016

Authors: Emily K. Mantlo Nicholas J. Haley

Heartland virus (HRTV) is an emerging tick-borne bandavirus that is capable of causing severe disease characterized by acute thrombocytopenia and lymphopenia. The virus is endemic to the eastern United States and is carried by the Lone Star tick (Amblyomma americanum). Since its discovery in 2009, at least 60 human infections have been recorded across this area, with an overall 5–10% estimated mortality rate. All infections reported thus far have occurred following a known tick bite or exposure to tick-infested areas, but the possibility of nosocomial transmission has not been ruled out. Despite relatively high rates of seroprevalence among certain wildlife species such as white-tailed deer, the reservoir species for HRTV remains unknown, as the virus has never been isolated from any mammalian wildlife species. Furthermore, how the virus is transmitted to its vector species in nature remains unknown, though laboratory studies have confirmed both horizontal and vertical transmission of HRTV in A. americanum. In addition, the recent 2017 introduction of the Asian longhorned tick (Haemaphysalis longicornis) to the US has raised concerns about possible spillover of HRTV into a new tick species that has been confirmed to be a competent vector for HRTV in the laboratory. Thus, an increased awareness of its clinical presentation is needed, and further research is urgently required to establish the natural transmission cycle and develop new countermeasures for this novel zoonotic pathogen.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3030015

Authors: Shafiq ur Rehman Moin Iqbal Wajiha Waqar Ali Muhammad Wasif Malik Zulfiqar Ali Mumtaz Ali Khan Jamil Ahmed Ansari Muazam Abbas Ranjha Emily S. Bailey Aamer Ikram

Rabies is a neglected viral zoonotic disease with an almost 100% fatality rate. A pilot project was initiated by the National Institute of Health (NIH), Islamabad, in collaboration with Health Security Partners (HSP) to establish a real-time dog bite surveillance in humans in public sector secondary care hospitals of Islamabad. The main objective of this study was to analyze different characteristics of dog bite cases, identify gaps in surveillance, and recommend suggestions to improve and strengthen real-time dog bite surveillance systems. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in two major public sector hospitals in Islamabad from December 2019 to July 2020. Data on demographic information, site of the dog bite, category of the dog bite, and treatment was collected via a WVS mobile-based application. Descriptive analysis was carried out for different variables at a p-value of <0.05. A total of 338 dog bite cases were captured in the World Veterinary Service (WVS) application, and most cases (n = 226, 85.6%) were reported in December 2019 with a male-to-female ratio of 2:1. Most cases were reported from the age group of 22 to 31 years (n = 178, 53%). Out of the total number of cases, 263 (78%) presented with a single anatomical location, and 174 (51%) had Category II wounds. All dog bite patients were given only the first dose of the anti-rabies vaccine at the hospital level. Real-time dog bite surveillance via a mobile-based application proved to be effective for the timely recording and management of dog bite cases. Young people were reported to be mostly affected by dog bites, and nearly half of the cases were managed in hospitals. Refresher training was conducted for medics and paramedics for mobile-based applications, dog bite management, and proper referral of cases to tertiary care hospitals.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020014

Authors: Aditya Kumar Sharma Neha Dhasmana Gunjan Arora

Zoonotic diseases, also referred to as zoonoses, are diseases that are transmitted from animals to humans [...]

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020013

Authors: Ilaria Lensi George Lubas Roberto Amerigo Papini

We report a rare and interesting case of mixed infection with Leishmania infantum and Dirofilaria immitis associated with the incidental finding of microfilariae in the bone marrow of a 9-year-old, intact, male Bullmastiff which was seropositive to L. infantum. Clinical signs showed progressive weakness, pale mucosae membranes, and a very low body condition score. Laboratory abnormalities included moderate, normocytic, normochromic, non-regenerative anemia; mild leukocytosis, neutrophilia, monocytosis, and eosinopenia; low platelet count; elevated C reactive protein; mild hyperkalemia, hypoalbuminemia, and hyperbeta-2-globulinemia; and a low A/G ratio. Hypoadrenocorticism, euthyroid sick syndrome, and alteration in the fibrinolytic phase of hemostasis were also detected. Microfilariae were incidentally found in bone marrow cytology aspirate in the absence of clinical features indicative of co-infection with D. immitis. PCR confirmed the identification of the Dirofilaria species. It is assumed that the microfilariae may have left the microcirculation and migrated to bone marrow tissues by crossing the vessel wall. To the best of our knowledge, only one such case has been previously reported in dogs.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020012

Authors: Dorcas A. Gado David O. Ehizibolo Clement A. Meseko Neil E. Anderson Peter W. W. Lurz

Dogs live in close contact with humans as pets, for hunting, for security, and as a source of income. In addition, the meat is also consumed by some tribes in Nigeria. Dogs could therefore serve as reservoirs, carriers, and transmitters of zoonotic diseases. This review evaluates the literature from 2000 to 2020 for the prevalence and incidence of zoonotic pathogens associated with dogs in Nigeria. The results obtained show that overall, parasites constituted a majority (64%) of the zoonotic pathogens (or species) identified in dog hosts. A good number of studies have examined the role of ticks in the transmission of tick-borne pathogens. Further, bacteria make up 22% of the zoonotic pathogens. From this study, it appears that rabies is the major pathogen in dogs for which there is reliable evidence linking contact between humans and dogs. Oyo State in southwestern Nigeria and Plateau State in north-central Nigeria were the most frequently studied states, while prevalence/disease surveillance studies constituted 80% of the overall papers assessed. Interdisciplinary collaborations as well as research and diagnosis policy amendments are missing links to fully appreciate the role of dogs in the transmission of zoonotic diseases in Nigeria. Policies should integrate a one health approach in the Nigerian health system, whereby diagnostic screening of humans and animals by physicians and veterinarians includes zoonotic pathogens for more accurate diagnosis and control.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020011

Authors: Taishi Kayano Justin Pulford Lian Thomas

Zoonotic and foodborne diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality, especially in low- and middle-income countries. Pork is a potential source of zoonotic and foodborne diseases, and pork consumption is rapidly increasing in Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA). Here, studies conducted in ESA describing pig- and pork-associated zoonotic and foodborne hazards were identified to clarify the distribution and prevalence of these hazards and identify research gaps in this region. A systematised literature review was conducted using MEDLINE and Web of Science to identify relevant articles according to pre-determined inclusion/exclusion criteria. In total, 140 articles from 14 countries were identified for review. A total of 42 hazards were identified, categorised as bacterial, viral, parasitic, arthropodal, or other, including drug residues. Among all identified hazards, Taenia spp. (n=40) was the most often studied, followed by Salmonella spp. (21), Escherichia coli (17), and Staphylococcus spp. (9). Further research is required to determine baseline data on the epidemiology and health and economic burden associated with pig- and pork-borne hazards and appropriate strategies are needed to mitigate the risk these hazards pose to communities.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020010

Authors: Cancan Wang Liping Zhang Ruiming Yu Peng Zhou Zhongwang Zhang Xin Miao Mingxia Li Jianliang Lv Li Pan Yonglu Wang Xinsheng Liu

The objective of this study was to construct a recombinant adenovirus expressing the foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) capsid protein of types O and A for future FMDV vaccines to be used in the livestock industry for the reduction in losses caused by FMD outbreaks. Three recombinant adenoviruses, rAdv-P12A3B3C-OZK93, rAdv-P12A3B3C-OA58, and rAdv-P12A3C-AF72, were packaged, characterized, and amplified using the AdMaxTM adenovirus packaging system, and the humoral and cellular immunity levels were further evaluated in guinea pigs with monovalent or bivalent forms. The results showed that the three recombinant adenoviruses could elicit high levels of humoral and cellular immune responses against FMDV types O and A when immunizing monovalent or bivalent forms, and the immune effect changes with the change in the proportion of recombinant adenovirus types O and A, laying an important foundation for the future development of a new FMD live-carrier vaccine. These results implied that the recombinant adenovirus expressing the FMDV capsid protein of types O and A could be used to prevent FMDV in livestock.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020009

Authors: Bin Yan Yujun Liu Yuan-Chuan Chen Isadora Zhang Fenyong Liu

Developing novel antiviral agents and approaches is essential for the treatment against human and zoonotic viruses. We had previously produced RNase P-based ribozyme variants capable of efficiently cleaving mRNA in vitro. Here, engineered ribozymes were constructed from an RNase P ribozyme variant to target the mRNA encoding human CC-chemokine receptor 5 (CCR5), an HIV co-receptor. The constructed ribozyme efficiently cleaved the CCR5 mRNA in vitro. In cells expressing the engineered ribozyme, CCR5 expression diminished by more than 90% and the infection of HIV (R5 strain Ba-L) decreased by 200-fold. The ribozyme-expressing cells resistant to R5 strain Ba-L still supported the infection of HIV X4 strain IIIB due to its use of CXCR4 instead of CCR5 as the co-receptor. Thus, the ribozyme is specific against CCR5 but not CXCR4. This indicates that RNase P ribozyme is effective and specific against CCR5 to diminish HIV infection, and also displays the viability of developing engineered RNase P ribozymes against human and zoonotic viruses.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3020008

Authors: Max J. Moreno-Madriñan Eric Kontowicz

Zoonotic pathogens, an increasing threat to human health, typically originate in the wild but spill over to humans from domestic animals because of the high contact with them. Industrial farming involves an increased number of animals of a single species per given area. Such high stocking density facilitates pathogen transmission. This speeds evolution and also offsets the natural tendency of pathogens to trend toward mildness. On the other hand, close contact reduces transmission dependence on host mobility and thus could favor virulence. Forestalling this problem requires understanding opportunities for spillovers and evolution created by animal farming technologies and human-animal-ecosystem interactions. This manuscript considers two important risk factors of intensive animal farming, stoking density and homogeneity, to inform practices that could stop the next pandemic at its source.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3010007

Authors: Kush Kumar Yadav Scott P. Kenney

Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is an emerging viral disease known to cause acute viral hepatitis globally. Various genotypes of HEV have been identified that produce genotype specific lesions depending on the HEV targeted population. Pregnant or immunosuppressed individuals develop significantly more severe hepatitis E in comparison to the general population. In the last 40 years, we discovered that the tropism of HEV is not restricted to the liver, and virus replication was demonstrated in multiple organs. Out of the 10 body systems described in humans, HEV produces lesions causing a broad range of extrahepatic clinical manifestations in each of them. Affected body systems include nervous and musculoskeletal, cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, integumentary, renal, respiratory, immune, and reproductive systems producing systemic lesions. All extrahepatic signs are caused by either direct HEV replication in these tissues, or indirectly by various immune mediated mechanisms. Extrahepatic replication features of HEV allowed it to cross the placental barrier, blood–brain barrier (BBB), and blood–testis barrier (BTB) that do not typically grant entry to viruses in general. Thus, in this review, we summarized the extrahepatic replication sites of HEV, listed the body systems where HEV invaded, and described multiple animal models including immunocompetent and immunosuppressed that were used to study the extrahepatic replication sites of HEV.

Zoonotic Diseases doi: 10.3390/zoonoticdis3010006

Authors: Hammed Oladeji Mogaji Olaitan Olamide Omitola Adedotun Ayodeji Bayegun Uwem Friday Ekpo Andrew W. Taylor-Robinson

Schistosomiasis is one of the leading neglected tropical diseases in sub-Saharan Africa. Recorded case numbers of this chronic and debilitating helminth disease indicate Nigeria to be the most endemic country within this region. National control efforts have focused intensively on restricting human contact with freshwater sources of intermediate host snails. However, limited attention has been paid to the role of livestock as reservoir hosts and the prevalence of transmission of schistosomes to humans via farmed animals. The West African nations of Mali, Senegal, and the neighbouring Niger, Benin, and Cameroon have all reported the hybridization of the closely related species of Schistosoma haematobium, which infects humans, and S. bovis, which infects cattle. As these countries share the Niger and Benue rivers, with their tributaries, there is a distinct possibility of aquatic snails infected with hybrid schistosomes migrating to become established in the Nigerian river system. Here, we report on the current state of research in Nigeria that aims to elucidate key aspects of zoonotic schistosomiasis epidemiology. Factors promoting the hybridization of Schistosoma species are highlighted, and how available control measures can be optimized to address the emergence of schistosome hybrids is discussed.