Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2030009

Authors: Kongeswaran Thangaraj Muthuramalingam Rajendran Perumal Velmayil Venkatramanan Senapathi Prabakaran Kulandaisamy Radhakrishnan Krishnamoorthy Sakthi Sivakumar

Agricultural drought is an important issue for food security, water availability and rural livelihoods, particularly in the semi-arid regions of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, especially in Sivagangai District. This study combines multi-temporal remote sensing data and GIS techniques to evaluate the agricultural drought vulnerability during a 30-year time frame (1994–2024). Landsat satellite imagery and climate data were used to derive some key bio-physical indicators such as NDVI, NDWI, VCI, SMI, LST, LULC and SPI. An AHP was used to assign weights to each parameter and was created. The spatiotemporal analysis shows that there is a substantial reduction in vegetated and moist areas as well as a high growth of high and very high temperature areas and built-up land. The percentage of areas classified as ‘Very High’ drought vulnerability has increased significantly from 1.08% (1994) to 40.04% (2024), highlighting a growing threat from drought conditions. NDVI and NDWI were chosen as the most significant indices that affect drought. The findings reflect the deteriorating environmental condition and stress the need for specific mitigation measures, including afforestation, sustainable land-use planning and management of water resources. This study is both spatially explicit and scalable; it provides key information to local planners, policymakers and stakeholders to support agricultural resilience in drought-prone regions.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2030008

Authors: Upani Gunatilake Vithanage P. A. Weerasinghe Chaturangi Wickramaratne

Rapid urbanization in tropical Asia has fundamentally transformed land use–land cover while intensifying urban thermal stress, yet the relationship between land cover change and thermal conditions is frequently assumed to be spatially uniform. This study challenges that assumption by demonstrating that land cover–thermal relationships in Colombo District, Sri Lanka, are highly spatially and temporally heterogeneous, with statistically significant associations detected in only 17–47% of the study area in any given year, underscoring that context, not land cover type alone, governs thermal outcomes. Using multi-temporal Landsat satellite imagery, LULC maps were derived, and the urban heat island effect (UHIE) and urban thermal field variance index (UTFVI) were calculated for seven time periods (1989, 1996, 2002, 2009, 2014, 2019, 2024). Geographically weighted regression (GWR) was applied to model local relationships between LULC classes, namely wetland vegetation, water bodies, impervious surfaces, and other pervious surfaces, and thermal indices across a 500 m spatial grid, revealing a 74% loss in wetland vegetation and a 326% increase in impervious surfaces over the study period. Water bodies exhibited spatially variable cooling effects relative to wetland vegetation, most pronounced in eastern regions during earlier periods, while impervious surfaces showed consistent, spatially persistent warming effects concentrated in western and southern urban cores. By coupling GWR with a 35-year multi-sensor time series, this study provides a spatially explicit, longitudinal account of how land cover–thermal relationships evolve as tropical urbanization intensifies, offering an evidence base for spatially targeted rather than uniform climate adaptation planning in rapidly urbanizing tropical cities.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2030007

Authors: Kimnannara Khiev Ratha Sor Vanna Chea Sophak Sett Jackson Frechette Naven Hon

Wildlife plays a vital role in maintaining ecological balance and biodiversity, relying on habitats that provide shelter, food, and essential resources. This study investigated wildlife distribution and diversity across the REDD+ program area in Cambodia’s Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary, a lowland evergreen forest ecosystem, and assessed the effects of forest habitats and anthropogenic pressure on their distribution. We used square transects for sampling and ArcGIS to calculate forest cover and distance to the nearest village as a proxy for human impact. Overall, we recorded seven mammals and two birds, with the great hornbill (Buceros bicornis) most frequently detected, followed by pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus), wild pig (Sus scrofa), long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis), green peafowl (Pavo muticus), northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), and Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini), while gaur (Bos gaurus) and sambar deer (Rusa unicolor) were least detected. Wildlife richness and abundance were higher in evergreen-dominated habitats than in mixed deciduous–evergreen forests. Certain K-selected species, including pileated gibbon, Indochinese silvered langur, and great hornbill, were highly specialized and preferred intact forests, whereas generalist species such as northern red muntjac, long-tailed macaque, and wild pig showed ecological flexibility in habitat use. These findings emphasize tailored conservation strategies: protecting intact evergreen forests via REDD+ supports specialized species, while adaptive management in mosaic landscapes benefits generalists, enhancing wildlife conservation and sustainable management of the Prey Lang Wildlife Sanctuary.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2030006

Authors: Happy Oyenje John-Nwagwu Nnachi Ikwuo Nnachi Rosemary Okikiola John Ngozi Gloria Johnson Edith Makwe Olufayokemi Rasheedat Oyesanmi

Lokoja, the capital of Kogi State, Nigeria, situated at the confluence of the Niger and Benue Rivers, has experienced rapid urban expansion alongside heightened environmental risks, including flooding and ecosystem degradation. Using multi-temporal Landsat imagery (2000, 2010, 2020, 2024), Random Forest classification, and landscape metrics, this study analyses spatio-temporal patterns of urban growth and fragmentation in this underrepresented mid-sized African city. Urban land cover expanded from 6668 ha in 2000 to 15,985 ha in 2024 (net ~140% growth), following a non-linear trajectory of rapid expansion (2000–2010), partial consolidation (2010–2020), and renewed growth with intensified fragmentation (2020–2024). This growth caused severe ecological impacts: dense forest declined by 99.7% (from 373 ha to 1 ha), woodland by 73.9%, and core natural land cover by 23% to 13.8% of the landscape, below critical ecological thresholds. Edge density rose by 121%, exacerbating urban heat, runoff, and biodiversity loss, while apparent gains in grassland largely reflect secondary succession rather than recovery. This study recommends enforcing development restrictions below 10 m in elevation, with 100 m riparian buffers; restoring 500 ha of native corridors; mandating 20% urban tree canopy cover; and establishing community-based green space monitoring. The findings provide empirical insights into sustainability challenges facing mid-sized African cities and offer transferable strategies for ecologically sensitive urban planning.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2020005

Authors: Kaio Gráculo Vieira Garcia Arthur Prudêncio de Araujo Pereira Luís Miguel Alves dos Santos Ryan Felipe Araújo Sousa Jônathas Eugênio Silva Maria Elizeth da Silva Ávila Geocleber Gomes de Sousa José de Souza Oliveira Filho Paulo Furtado Mendes Filho

Mining activities severely degrade soil quality, impairing ecosystem functioning by reducing organic matter and increasing metal toxicity, which limits plant establishment. This study evaluated the effects of vermicompost and arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) on plant growth, manganese (Mn) dynamics, and plant–soil interactions associated with early ecosystem recovery in Mimosa caesalpiniifolia cultivated in mining-degraded soil. A greenhouse experiment was conducted in a 3 × 2 factorial design, with three vermicompost doses (0, 60, and 120 g kg−1) and two inoculation treatments (with and without Claroideoglomus etunicatum). Vermicompost significantly increased shoot and root biomass. AMF inoculation enhanced shoot and root biomass by 25% and 16%, respectively. Although vermicompost reduced mycorrhizal colonization, AMF increased spore density. The highest vermicompost dose reduced Mn concentrations in shoots and roots by up to 44% and 39%, respectively. AMF altered Mn partitioning by decreasing shoot Mn and increasing root retention, suggesting the potential for phytostabilization. Mn toxicity was reduced by 74% with vermicompost and 24% with AMF. Overall, vermicompost and AMF contributed independently to improved plant establishment and regulated Mn dynamics, supporting early indicators relevant to ecosystem recovery and their potential use in sustainable strategies for the ecological restoration of mining-degraded soils.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2020004

Authors: Carla Rodrigues Santos Bruno Schultz Fernanda Beatriz Jordan Rojas Dallaqua Ana Larissa Ribeiro de Freitas Júlio Bandeira Guerra Francisco Salazar

The state of São Paulo is home to remnants of the Atlantic Forest and Cerrado biomes, both of which face intense anthropogenic pressure and hight fragmentation. In this context, Environmental Recovery Commitment Agreements (TCRAs) serve as essential instruments for restoring degraded areas and monitoring vegetation recovery over time. This study assesses land use and land cover (LULC) classification performance in TCRA sites by integrating Satellite Image Time Series (SITS) with spectral fractions derived from the Linear Spectral Mixture Model (LSMM), utilizing 2025 Sentinel-2A/2B imagery. Data were organized into spatiotemporal cubes within R environment and classified using the Random Forest algorithm. Model performance was assessed using a confusion matrix and accuracy metrics, including User’s Accuracy (UA), Producer’s Accuracy (PA), F1-score, and Intersection over Union (IoU), as well as spatial analysis of agreement and disagreement between predicted maps and reference data. Results demonstrate high classification precision for vegetation classes, specifically pasture (F1 = 0.91) and forest formations (F1 = 0.87). Primary misclassifications occurred between spectrally similar classes, particularly within small fragments and intermediate regeneration stages. Overall, the integration of SITS and LSMM enhanced class separability by incorporating temporal dynamics and mitigating spectral mixing effects, highlighting its potential as an operational tool for environmental restoration monitoring.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2010003

Authors: Jamie T. Potter Franz J. Lichtner Jeffrey Summers

A substantial number of potential underground carbon storage reservoirs exist in regions that contain permafrost (continuously frozen layers of the subsurface), such as in the Alaskan North Slope. The extent and depth of these permafrost layers are changing globally at a rapid pace on the geologic timescale, which warrants continued research and observation. In order to prepare for successful carbon sequestration projects in these regions, in this work, we investigate the outcome from the potential scenario of carbon dioxide encountering the permafrost at depth. This article reviews currently available literature pertaining to the characteristics of permafrost for carbon storage in the case of the injection of carbon dioxide into deep onshore underground reservoirs. This study compares research showing evidence of both the flow of carbon dioxide gas through permafrost and the storage of carbon dioxide gas by permafrost. The findings suggest more research is needed, and several future research areas are outlined in this work.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2010002

Authors: Kelvin S.-H. Peh Zoe Bird

Invasive alien species (IAS) can cause the extinction of a taxon. However, debate continues over the significance of IAS as drivers of extinction globally, the level of threat they pose to endangered species, and whether conservation efforts against IAS should take priority over other factors, such as habitat loss or climate change. We provide new insights from the IUCN Red List, focusing on species classified as extinct or extinct in the wild that are linked exclusively to IAS. Many extinction events are also caused by multiple synergistic threats, including IAS, but the relative contributions of these threats remain uncertain. We suggest using Structural Equation Models (SEMs) to tease out the effects of IAS and other interacting factors on threatened species, to better understand the role of IAS in potential extinctions.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere2010001

Authors: Peter A. Quinby

Globally, timber production continues to dominate multiple-use forest management despite evidence from many managed landscapes that ecological integrity and biodiversity are not being sustained under that land-use model. This includes Algonquin Park where two centuries of road building, logging, and aggregate mining have contributed to a ~82% (6200 km2) reduction in unlogged, roadless (>1 km from roads) habitat at a mean decline rate of 32 km2/yr. There are at least ~5500 km of roads that fragment Algonquin Park into 732 roadless habitats covering 18% of the Park’s area. Almost 40,000 ha of these habitats are unprotected from logging. Decline of roadless habitat in Algonquin has contributed to the impairment of ecological integrity and decline of at least 34 species across all trophic levels, including at least 17 species-at-risk. Restoring the natural Algonquin Park landscape would result in job losses; however, data suggest that new recreation–tourism and research–education jobs would help to offset these losses. A new agency could build on existing infrastructure to monitor, research, educate about, maintain, and restore biodiversity and recreational resources in the greater Algonquin Park Region, with the park as the central hub. Restoration could be focused on roadless areas as an “integrative” indicator of ecological integrity.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010007

Authors: Anna Auza José Alberto Fuinhas

Economic connectedness has been recently found to lower income inequality by rising intergenerational mobility, yet its environmental impacts are less well known. More well-known is the fact that the non-carbon footprint is easier to reach via regulations because its production is domestic. These two problems of income inequality and environmental pollution have echoed in public opinion polls as one of the major current problems in developed countries. We thereby look at the United States on the state level during the last two decades (2010–2020) with a Hausman–Taylor estimator for panel data. The choice of the estimator stems from its appropriateness for panel datasets with constant variables. We find that in the United States, economic connectedness between friends, whereby friendships were formed within the same group, may be blamed for the rising environmental (non-carbon) footprint. The non-carbon footprint is, therefore, explained by the bonding of social capital, which may restrict innovation. We document the case where social capital in the form of economic connectedness may be harmful to the public good, such as the environment, our main contribution. The negative effect of bonding social capital on environmental outcomes due to rigid social networks and particular network technology use is a novel addition to the prior research. The policy implications are discussed in more detail, and a call is made to distinguish social capital types and promote bridging social capital where bonding social capital is relatively strong.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010006

Authors: Atsbha Brhane Gebru Tesfamichael Gebreyohannes Gebrerufael Hailu Kahsay

Analysis of historical and future land use/land cover (LULC) dynamics using spatiotemporal data is crucial for better management of natural resources and environmental monitoring. This study investigated LULC transformations over a span of 60 years (1984–2044) for the Giba basin in northern Ethiopia. ArcGIS and the Cellular Automata and Artificial Neural Network (CA-ANN) model were used to develop the historical (1984, 2004, 2014, and 2024) and projected future (2034 and 2044) LULC maps of the basin, respectively. The results show that LULC categories experienced shifts from one class to another by 35%, 33%, and 40% in 2004–2014, 2014–2024, and 2004–2024, respectively. During 1984–2024, the largest and smallest percentage of positive changes were observed in settlement (7700%) and shrubs and bushes (25%), which increased from negligible to 78 km2 and from 1668 km2 to 2082 km2, respectively. Furthermore, barren land and forestland showed the largest (−80%) and smallest (−37%) declines, which decreased from 956 km2 to 187 km2 and from 164 km2 to 103 km2 during the same period, respectively. Overall, the last 40 years witnessed considerable changes to LULC dynamics in the Giba basin. Cropland, water bodies, and settlements showed a continuously increasing trend throughout the historical study period, while grassland exhibited a continuous decreasing trend. Results of the CA-ANN model showed that the majority of the LULC categories (including water body, forest, bushes and shrubs, grassland, and barren land) will decrease, except for a slight increase of cropland (+6%) and settlements (+16%), which is projected to increase from 2570 km2 to 2733 km2 and from 78 km2 to 91 km2, respectively, in the next two decades, from 2024 to 2044. In general, high population increase, changes in government policies, and armed conflicts were found to be the most influential driving factors of LULC changes in the basin.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010005

Authors: Nguyen Quoc Khuong Tran Ngoc Han Le Thi My Thu Nguyen Thi Tuyet Hue Nguyen Duc Trong Le Thanh Quang Tran Trong Khoi Nguyen Nguyen Thanh Toan Ngo Thanh Phong Phung Thi Hang

Potassium (K) is present in soils mainly in minerals, including feldspar. However, most of it is unavailable to plants. In the in-dyked alluvial soils of the Mekong Delta, available K is typically low despite the abundance of K-bearing feldspar, leading to nutrient imbalances and yield constraints. This study aimed to (i) select potential feldspar-potassium-solubilizing purple nonsulfur bacteria (K-PNSB), (ii) determine their ability to enhance hybrid maize seed vigor (Zea mays L.), and (iii) evaluate their effects on the growth of maize seedlings. Fifty-eight K-PNSB strains were isolated from maize-cultivated in-dyked alluvial soils, with soluble K concentrations ranging from 0.108 to 15.0 mg L−1. Among these, strain M-Sl-03 released the highest K concentration under microaerobic light conditions, whereas strains M-Sl-01 and M-Sl-06 produced best under aerobic dark conditions. In addition, two more strains, M-Sl-02 and M-Wa-06, were also selected for their K solubilization ability. The selected strains were identified as Cereibacter sphaeroides strains M-Sl-01 and M-Sl-02, Rhodopseudomonas palustris strain M-Sl-03, and Rhodoplanes pokkaliisoli strains M-Sl-03 and M-Wa-06, according to their 16S rDNA region. None of them exhibited toxicity to germinating maize seeds. Both individual strains and the five-strain mixture significantly improved seed vigor. At a 1:1000 dilution, individual and mixed inoculants increased the vigor index of maize seeds by 47.5–68.8%. In addition, the selected PNSB strains contributed to improving the growth of maize seedlings, particularly plant height and root dry biomass. These promising strains have potential for application as biofertilizers to support hybrid maize cultivation.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010004

Authors: Helen Carla Santana Amorim Francielle Roberta Dias de Lima Mariene Helena Duarte Rafael Marta Carbone Carneiro Gustavo Avelar Zorgdrager Van Opbergen Raphael Felipe Rodrigues Corrêa Luiz Roberto Guimarães Guilherme

Organo-mineral fertilizers can slow N release to plants, reducing N losses to the environment and enhancing N use efficiency (NUE). Yet, this greater NUE is not always coupled to greater crop yields, which warrants further investigation. Here, we assessed the relationship between N-NH3 losses from volatilization and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) biomass and N status. The following treatments were tested: conventional urea (U, 45% N), urea treated with NBPT (N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide) (U + NBPT, 45.6% N), S-coated urea (U + S; 37% N), Se-coated urea (U + Se; 45% N), organo-mineral fertilizer Azoslow 29 (OMF, 29% N + 50% Azogel®). The above treatments and non-fertilized control were tested in two soils (LVd and LVAd, 71 and 25% clay, respectively). Semi-open static collectors were used to determine N-NH3 volatilization 1, 2, 4, 8, 11, 15, 18, 23, 29, and 36 days after application of treatments. Wheat was cultivated for 35 days, and shoot dry mass and total leaf N were determined after harvest. Cumulative N-NH3 losses from OMF (27 and 32% of N applied in the LVd and LVAd soils, respectively) did not differ from U and (26–32%) and U + Se (24–31%), likely due to organic matter inputs enhancing urease activity in soils. Nevertheless, OMF resulted in 2–4 times greater wheat dry matter than U, U + Se, and U + S, with similar dry mass of U + NBPT for LVAd soils. OMF application enhanced total N removal in wheat leaves relative to the unfertilized control and most N sources. N-NH3 losses did not reduce biomass yield, but were negatively linked to N accumulation in wheat. The OMF enhanced wheat biomass and nutrition while sustaining environmental quality and promoting circularity in agroecosystems.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010003

Authors: Elena A. Mikhailova Hamdi A. Zurqani Lili Lin Zhenbang Hao Christopher J. Post Mark A. Schlautman Gregory C. Post Gretchen A. Highberger George B. Shepherd

The Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) is an important agreement committing 196 countries (the United States is not part of GBF) to reduce and stop the loss of biodiversity by 2030. Biodiversity and soil diversity (pedodiversity) are intricately linked by sharing biosphere. Similarly to biodiversity, pedodiversity is classified using various classification systems adopted by countries in the world (e.g., United States Soil Taxonomy). The loss of pedodiversity is often caused by land use and land cover (LULC) changes, which impact biodiversity. These losses need to be acknowledged and accounted for by the GBF. The innovation of this study is that it proposes to include pedodiversity and its metrics into the GBF using the contiguous United States of America (USA) and GBF targets as an example. This study proposes to use geospatial technologies (e.g., land cover change matrix) linked to soil databases to monitor temporal changes and no net loss in pedodiversity. Loss of pedodiversity can result in damages (e.g., pollution), which can harm biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services (ES). As of 2021, over two million square kilometers were anthropogenically degraded in the contiguous USA, with all ten soil orders being affected by this degradation (relevant to target ten focused on the sustainable use of natural resources). Analysis of changes in LULC between 2001 and 2021 showed an increase in anthropogenic land degradation (LD) (+3.4%), which resulted in a net loss of pedodiversity and affected all of the ten soil orders in the contiguous USA. Future GBF refinements could use pedodiversity metrics to analyze the ability to support biodiversity.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010002

Authors: Elena A. Mikhailova Hamdi A. Zurqani Lili Lin Zhenbang Hao Christopher J. Post Mark A. Schlautman Gregory C. Post Camryn E. Brown George B. Shepherd

Wetlands provide the world with important ecosystem services (ES) including carbon (C) storage. The Ramsar Convention (RC) is the only global treaty on wetlands outside of the United Nations (UN) with 172 contracting parties across the world as of 2025. The goals of the convention are to promote the wise use and conservation of wetlands, designation of suitable wetlands as wetlands of international importance, and international cooperation. The problem is that there is no consensus for standard global analysis, which is needed to ensure wetlands conservation. The novelty of this study is the use of methodology that combines satellite-based land cover change analysis with high-resolution spatial databases to help understand the change in wetlands area over time and identify potential hotspots for C loss. Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from wetland conversions represent “transboundary” damages. Therefore, C loss from wetlands conversions can be expressed through the “realized” social cost of C (SC-CO2) which is a conservative estimate of the damages caused by carbon dioxide (CO2) release. A case study of the contiguous United States of America (USA) using raster analysis within ArcGIS Pro showed key findings that almost 53% of the wetlands area was lost between 1780 and 1980, starting with 894,880.7 km2 in 1780 and falling to 422,388.2 km2 in 1980. This net loss generated damages including midpoint total soil C loss (6.7 × 1013 kg of C) with associated midpoint “realized” social costs of C (SC-CO2) value of $11.4T (where T = trillion = 1012, $ = United States dollars, USD). Recent analysis of the contiguous USA (2001–2021) revealed wetlands area losses and damages in all states. The newly demonstrated method for rapid monitoring of wetlands changes over time can be integrated into systems for worldwide monitoring to support the RC wise use concept.

Biosphere doi: 10.3390/biosphere1010001

Authors: Giulia Stefenelli

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