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The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food...
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The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Bacterial Toxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 26713

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Alexander Govaris

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Hygiene of Foods of Animal Origin, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, 224 Trikalon Street, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
Interests: food pathogens; milk products; food microbiology; Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli; STEC; Staphylococcus aureus; staphylococcal enterotoxins; mycotoxins; aflatoxins; ochratoxins
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Andreana Pexara

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Laboratory of Hygiene of Foods of Animal Origin, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, 224 Trikalon Street, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
Interests: hygiene of foods of animal origin
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

There are several toxigenic bacteria, such as Bacillus anthracis, Listeria monocytogens, Shigella dysenteriae, Escherichia coli, Clostridium perfringens, Clostridium chauvoei, Clostridium novyi, Clostridium septicum, Clostridium botulinum, Clostridium tetani, Staphylococcus aureus or Streptococcus pneumonia, which can infect animals. The toxins of toxigenic bacteria can cause several diseases, such as black leg, malignant edema, enterotoxaemia, sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, tetanus, mastitis, etc., and even lead to the death of animals (e.g., anthrax or listeriosis). Bacterial toxins can also affect the health of animals and reduce their production activities (e.g., milk). The current epidemiological data, occurrence of bacterial toxigenic strains, antibiotic resistance, treatment of infected animals or prevention measures of toxigenic bacterial infection in animals are interesting scientific items for health scientists and livestock.

Toxigenic foodborne bacteria such as Listeria monocytogens, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Clostridium botulinum or Yersinia enterocolitica can also infect consumers and cause severe outbreaks. Certain toxins such as Botulinum toxin from Clostridium botulinum or Shiga-like toxins from Escherichia coli O157:H7 can also cause the death of consumers.

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, produced by several fungi species in a wide variety of foods and feeds around the world. Mycotoxins can affect the health and even cause the death of animals or humans. The most important mycotoxins are aflatoxins, ochratoxins, fusarium, patulin, citrinin, and ergot alkaloids. Toxigenic fungi are several Aspergillus, Penicillium, Claviceps, Paecilomyces or Fusarium species. Aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is the most potent natural carcinogen known. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is classified by the International Agency for Research on Cancer as a possible human carcinogen (group 2B).

The current scientific data on toxigenic foodborne bacteria and mycotoxins are important for the consumers, health scientists, and food safety authorities.

This Special Issue of Toxins entitled “The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety” invites works (research or reviews) on the current state of knowledge of the subject

Prof. Dr. Alexander Govaris
Dr. Andreana Pexara
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • bacterial toxins
  • toxigenic bacteria
  • mycotoxins
  • toxigenic fungi
  • animal health
  • foodborne bacteria
  • food safety

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

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16 pages, 1167 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Characterization of PVL-Positive Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Raw Cow’s Milk
by Asmaa Sadat, Radwa Reda Shata, Alshimaa M. M. Farag, Hazem Ramadan, Adel Alkhedaide, Mohamed Mohamed Soliman, Mohamed Elbadawy, Amira Abugomaa and Amal Awad
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020097 - 25 Jan 2022
Cited by 40 | Viewed by 5723
Abstract
The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles, and some toxin genes of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in unpasteurized raw cow’s milk collected from retail outlets located at Mansoura, Dakahliya governorate, Egypt. In that context, [...] Read more.
The present study aimed to investigate the prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility profiles, and some toxin genes of Panton-Valentine leukocidin (PVL)-positive Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in unpasteurized raw cow’s milk collected from retail outlets located at Mansoura, Dakahliya governorate, Egypt. In that context, a total of 700 raw cow’s milk samples were investigated for the presence of S. aureus, which was identified in 41.1% (288/700) of the samples. Among the S. aureus isolates, 113 PVL-positive S. aureus were identified and subjected for further analysis. The PVL-positive S. aureus were investigated for the existence of toxin-related genes, including hemolysin (hla), toxic shock syndrome toxin-1 (tst), and enterotoxins (sea, seb, sec, see, seg, sei, and selj). Genotypic resistance of PVL-positive strains was performed for the detection of blaZ and mecA genes. Among the PVL-positive S. aureus, sea, seb, and sec were detected in 44.2, 6.2%, and 0.9%, respectively, while the hla and tst genes were identified in 54.9% and 0.9%, respectively. The blaZ and mecA genes were successfully identified in 84.9 (96/113) and 32.7% (37/113) of the total evaluated S. aureus isolates, respectively. PVL-positive S. aureus displayed a high level of resistance to penicillin, ampicillin, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. Multidrug resistance (resistant to ≥3 antimicrobial classes) was displayed by all methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and 38.2% of methicillin-sensitive S. aureus (MSSA) isolates. The obtained findings are raising the alarm of virulent PVL-positive MRSA clones in retail milk in Egypt, suggesting the requirement for limiting the use of β-lactam drugs in food-producing animals and the importance of implementing strong hygiene procedures in dairy farms and processing plants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety)
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11 pages, 1212 KiB  
Communication
New Insights into the Potential Cytotoxic Role of Bacillus cytotoxicus Cytotoxin K-1
by Klèma Marcel Koné, Pauline Hinnekens, Jelena Jovanovic, Andreja Rajkovic and Jacques Mahillon
Toxins 2021, 13(10), 698; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13100698 - 1 Oct 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3039
Abstract
The thermotolerant representative of the Bacillus cereus group, Bacillus cytotoxicus, reliably harbors the coding gene of cytotoxin K-1 (CytK-1). This protein is a highly cytotoxic variant of CytK toxin, initially recovered from a diarrheal foodborne outbreak that caused the death of three [...] Read more.
The thermotolerant representative of the Bacillus cereus group, Bacillus cytotoxicus, reliably harbors the coding gene of cytotoxin K-1 (CytK-1). This protein is a highly cytotoxic variant of CytK toxin, initially recovered from a diarrheal foodborne outbreak that caused the death of three people. In recent years, the cytotoxicity of B. cytotoxicus has become controversial, with some strains displaying a high cytotoxicity while others show no cytotoxicity towards cell lines. In order to better circumscribe the potential pathogenic role of CytK-1, knockout (KO) mutants were constructed in two B. cytotoxicus strains, E8.1 and E28.3. The complementation of the cytK-1 KO mutation was implemented in a mutant strain lacking in the cytK-1 gene. Using the tetrazolium salt (MTT) method, cytotoxicity tests of the cytK-1 KO and complemented mutants, as well as those of their wild-type strains, were carried out on Caco-2 cells. The results showed that cytK-1 KO mutants were significantly less cytotoxic than the parental wild-type strains. However, the complemented mutant was as cytotoxic as the wild-type, suggesting that CytK-1 is the major cytotoxicity factor in B. cytotoxicus. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety)
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24 pages, 6638 KiB  
Article
Occurrence and Toxicogenetic Profiling of Clostridium perfringens in Buffalo and Cattle: An Update from Pakistan
by Muhammad Umar Zafar Khan, Muhammad Humza, Shunli Yang, Mughees Aizaz Alvi, Muhammad Zahid Iqbal, Hafiza Zain-ul-Fatima, Shumaila Khalid, Tahir Munir and Jianping Cai
Toxins 2021, 13(3), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13030212 - 13 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3800
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive bacterium that possess seven toxinotypes (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G) that are responsible for the production of six major toxins, i.e., α, β, ε, ι, CPE, and NetB. The aim of this study [...] Read more.
Clostridium perfringens is a Gram-positive bacterium that possess seven toxinotypes (A, B, C, D, E, F, and G) that are responsible for the production of six major toxins, i.e., α, β, ε, ι, CPE, and NetB. The aim of this study is to find out the occurrence of toxinotypes in buffalo and cattle of Punjab province in Pakistan and their corresponding toxin-encoding genes from the isolated toxinotypes. To accomplish this aim, six districts in Punjab province were selected (i.e., Lahore, Sahiwal, Cheecha Watni, Bhakkar, Dera Ghazi Khan, and Bahawalpur) and a total of 240 buffalo and 240 cattle were selected for the collection of samples. From isolation and molecular analysis (16S rRNA), it was observed that out of seven toxinotypes (A–G), two toxinotypes (A and D) were found at most, whereas other toxinotypes, i.e., B, C, E, F, and G, were not found. The most frequently occurring toxinotype was type A (buffalo: 149/240; cattle: 157/240) whereas type D (buffalo: 8/240 cattle: 7/240) was found to occur the least. Genes encoding toxinotypes A and D were cpa and etx, respectively, whereas genes encoding other toxinotypes were not observed. The occurrence of isolated toxinotypes was studied using response surface methodology, which suggested a considerable occurrence of the isolated toxinotypes (A and D) in both buffalo and cattle. Association between type A and type D was found to be significant among the isolated toxinotypes in both buffalo and cattle (p ≤ 0.05). Correlation was also found to be positive and significant between type A and type D. C. perfringens exhibits a range of toxinotypes that can be diagnosed via genotyping, which is more reliable than classical toxinotyping. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety)
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Review

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13 pages, 1683 KiB  
Review
Toxigenic Properties of Yersinia enterocolitica Biotype 1A
by Aleksandra Platt-Samoraj
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020118 - 5 Feb 2022
Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5868
Abstract
Yersinia (Y.) enterocolitica, an etiological agent of yersiniosis, is a bacterium whose pathogenicity is determined, among other things, by its ability to produce toxins. The aim of this article was to present the most important toxins that are produced by biotype 1A [...] Read more.
Yersinia (Y.) enterocolitica, an etiological agent of yersiniosis, is a bacterium whose pathogenicity is determined, among other things, by its ability to produce toxins. The aim of this article was to present the most important toxins that are produced by biotype 1A strains of Y. enterocolitica, and to discuss their role in the pathogenesis of yersiniosis. Y. enterocolitica biotype 1A strains are able to synthesize variants of thermostable YST enterotoxin and play a key role in the pathogenesis of yersiniosis. Biotype 1A strains of Y. enterocolitica also produce Y. enterocolitica pore-forming toxins, YaxA and YaxB. These toxins form pores in the cell membrane of host target cells and cause osmotic lysis, which is of particular importance in systemic infections. Insecticidal toxin complex genes have been detected in some clinical biotype 1A strains of Y. enterocolitica. However, their role has not yet been fully elucidated. Strains belonging to biotype 1A have long been considered non-pathogenic. This view is beginning to change due to the emerging knowledge about the toxigenic potential of these bacteria and their ability to overcome the defense barriers of the host organism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety)
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24 pages, 472 KiB  
Review
Ochratoxin A in Slaughtered Pigs and Pork Products
by Mikela Vlachou, Andreana Pexara, Nikolaos Solomakos and Alexander Govaris
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020067 - 19 Jan 2022
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 5440
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that is produced after the growth of several Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. in feeds or foods. OTA has been proved to possess nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, genotoxic, carcinogenic and immunotoxic effects in animals and humans. OTA has [...] Read more.
Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin that is produced after the growth of several Aspergillus and Penicillium spp. in feeds or foods. OTA has been proved to possess nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic, neurotoxic, genotoxic, carcinogenic and immunotoxic effects in animals and humans. OTA has been classified as possibly carcinogenic to humans (Group 2B) by the IARC in 2016. OTA can be mainly found in animals as a result of indirect transmission from naturally contaminated feed. OTA found in feed can also contaminate pigs and produced pork products. Additionally, the presence of OTA in pork meat products could be derived from the direct growth of OTA-producing fungi or the addition of contaminated materials such as contaminated spices. Studies accomplished in various countries have revealed that pork meat and pork meat products are important sources of chronic dietary exposure to OTA in humans. Various levels of OTA have been found in pork meat from slaughtered pigs in many countries, while OTA levels were particularly high in the blood serum and kidneys of pigs. Pork products made from pig blood or organs such as the kidney or liver have been often found to becontaminated with OTA. The European Union (EU) has established maximum levels (ML) for OTA in a variety of foods since 2006, but not for meat or pork products. However, the establishement of an ML for OTA in pork meat and meat by-products is necessary to protect human health. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Microbial Toxins on Animal Health and Food Safety)
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