Toxics

Review

25 pages, 1383 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Health Implications of Widespread Micro- and Nanoplastic Exposure: Environmental Prevalence, Mechanisms, and Biological Impact on Humans

by Olivia-Teodora Preda, Ana-Maria Vlasceanu, Cristina Veronica Andreescu, Aristidis Tsatsakis, Yaroslav Mezhuev, Carolina Negrei and Daniela Luiza Baconi

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100730 - 10 Oct 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4212

Abstract

The increasing awareness of the potential health risks associated with microplastics’ (MPs) and nanoplastics’ (NPs) presence in the environment has led to a significant rise in research focused on these particles over the past few years. This review focuses on the research on [...] Read more.

The increasing awareness of the potential health risks associated with microplastics’ (MPs) and nanoplastics’ (NPs) presence in the environment has led to a significant rise in research focused on these particles over the past few years. This review focuses on the research on MPs’/NPs’ presence and spread, pathways of exposure, toxicological effects on human health and legal framework related to MP/NP challenges. Several research projects have aimed to assess their potential harm to human health, focusing on different systems and organs. After exposure (independent of the pathway), these hazards reach the blood stream and concentrate in different organs. Further, they are responsible for harmful changes, having an immediate effect (pain, inflammation, or hormone imbalance) or lead to a long-term disease (e.g., infertility, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or cancer). Toxicological effects have been noticed at high concentrations of MPs, specifically polystyrene, the most widespread typical MP, but only short-term effects have been mostly studied. Significant quantities of consumed MPs have been discovered to have diverse detrimental effects, posing a threat to human welfare. The exact concentrations of microplastics that are inhaled and swallowed and then build up in the human body are still not known. Further investigation is necessary to evaluate the impact of MP/NP contamination at minimal concentrations and for prolonged durations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Exposure and Effects of Environmental Pollution on Vulnerable Populations)

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22 pages, 4499 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Application of Nano Zero-Valent Iron in Synergy with White Rot Fungi in Environmental Pollution Control

by Guoming Zeng, Zilong Ma, Rui Zhang, Yu He, Xuanhao Fan, Xiaoling Lei, Yong Xiao, Maolan Zhang and Da Sun

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 721; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100721 - 2 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

Developing efficient and sustainable pollution control technologies has become a research priority in the context of escalating global environmental pollution. Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI), with its high specific surface area and strong reducing power, demonstrates remarkable performance in pollutant removal. Still, its application [...] Read more.

Developing efficient and sustainable pollution control technologies has become a research priority in the context of escalating global environmental pollution. Nano zero-valent iron (nZVI), with its high specific surface area and strong reducing power, demonstrates remarkable performance in pollutant removal. Still, its application is limited by issues such as oxidation, passivation, and particle aggregation. White rot fungi (WRF) possess a unique enzyme system that enables them to degrade a wide range of pollutants effectively, yet they face challenges such as long degradation cycles and low degradation efficiency. Despite the significant role of nZVI in pollutant remediation, most contaminated sites still rely on microbial remediation as a concurrent or ultimate treatment method to achieve remediation goals. The synergistic combination of nZVI and WRF can leverage their respective advantages, thereby enhancing pollution control efficiency. This paper reviews the mechanisms, advantages, and disadvantages of nZVI and WRF in pollution control, lists application examples, and discusses their synergistic application in pollution control, highlighting their potential in pollutant remediation and providing new insights for combined pollutant treatment. However, research on the combined use of nZVI and WRF for pollutant remediation is still relatively scarce, necessitating a deeper understanding of their synergistic potential and further exploration of their cooperative interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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15 pages, 863 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Overview of Methylation and Demethylation Mechanisms and Influencing Factors of Mercury in Water

by Wenyu Zhao, Runjie Gan, Bensen Xian, Tong Wu, Guoping Wu, Shixin Huang, Ronghua Wang, Zixuan Liu, Qin Zhang, Shaoyuan Bai, Mingming Fu and Yanan Zhang

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 715; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100715 - 30 Sep 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3173

Abstract

Mercury, particularly in its methylated form, poses a significant environmental and health risk in aquatic ecosystems. While the toxicity and bioaccumulation of mercury are well documented, there remains a critical gap in our understanding of the mechanisms governing mercury methylation and demethylation in [...] Read more.

Mercury, particularly in its methylated form, poses a significant environmental and health risk in aquatic ecosystems. While the toxicity and bioaccumulation of mercury are well documented, there remains a critical gap in our understanding of the mechanisms governing mercury methylation and demethylation in aquatic environments. This review systematically examines the complex interplay of chemical, biological, and physical factors that influence mercury speciation and transformation in natural water systems. We provide a comprehensive analysis of methylation and demethylation processes, specifically focusing on the dominant role of methanogenic bacteria. Our study highlights the crucial function of hgcAB genes in facilitating mercury methylation by anaerobic microorganisms, an area that represents a frontier in current research. By synthesizing the existing knowledge and identifying key research priorities, this review offers novel insights into the intricate dynamics of mercury cycling in aquatic ecosystems. Our findings provide a theoretical framework to inform future studies and guide pollution management strategies for mercury and its compounds in aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic The Challenges and Future Trends in Anthropogenic and Natural Pollution Control Engineering)

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102 pages, 805 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Short-Half-Life Chemicals: Maternal Exposure and Offspring Health Consequences—The Case of Synthetic Phenols, Parabens, and Phthalates

by Delphine Rousseau-Ralliard, Jeanne Bozec, Marion Ouidir, Nicolas Jovanovic, Véronique Gayrard, Namya Mellouk, Marie-Noëlle Dieudonné, Nicole Picard-Hagen, Maria-José Flores-Sanabria, Hélène Jammes, Claire Philippat and Anne Couturier-Tarrade

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 710; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100710 - 29 Sep 2024

Viewed by 2368

Abstract

Phenols, parabens, and phthalates (PPPs) are suspected or known endocrine disruptors. They are used in consumer products that pregnant women and their progeny are exposed to daily through the placenta, which could affect offspring health. This review aims to compile data from cohort [...] Read more.

Phenols, parabens, and phthalates (PPPs) are suspected or known endocrine disruptors. They are used in consumer products that pregnant women and their progeny are exposed to daily through the placenta, which could affect offspring health. This review aims to compile data from cohort studies and in vitro and in vivo models to provide a summary regarding placental transfer, fetoplacental development, and the predisposition to adult diseases resulting from maternal exposure to PPPs during the gestational period. In humans, using the concentration of pollutants in maternal urine, and taking the offspring sex into account, positive or negative associations have been observed concerning placental or newborn weight, children’s BMI, blood pressure, gonadal function, or age at puberty. In animal models, without taking sex into account, alterations of placental structure and gene expression linked to hormones or DNA methylation were related to phenol exposure. At the postnatal stage, pollutants affect the bodyweight, the carbohydrate metabolism, the cardiovascular system, gonadal development, the age of puberty, sex/thyroid hormones, and gamete quality, but these effects depend on the age and sex. Future challenges will be to explore the effects of pollutants in mixtures using models and to identify the early signatures of in utero exposure capable of predicting the health trajectory of the offspring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Reproductive and Developmental Toxicity)

24 pages, 799 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Breast Cancer-Related Chemical Exposures in Firefighters

by Bethsaida Cardona, Kathryn M. Rodgers, Jessica Trowbridge, Heather Buren and Ruthann A. Rudel

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 707; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100707 - 28 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3869

Abstract

To fill a research gap on firefighter exposures and breast cancer risk, and guide exposure reduction, we aimed to identify firefighter occupational exposures linked to breast cancer. We conducted a systematic search and review to identify firefighter chemical exposures and then identified the [...] Read more.

To fill a research gap on firefighter exposures and breast cancer risk, and guide exposure reduction, we aimed to identify firefighter occupational exposures linked to breast cancer. We conducted a systematic search and review to identify firefighter chemical exposures and then identified the subset that was associated with breast cancer. To do this, we compared the firefighter exposures with chemicals that have been shown to increase breast cancer risk in epidemiological studies or increase mammary gland tumors in experimental toxicology studies. For each exposure, we assigned a strength of evidence for the association with firefighter occupation and for the association with breast cancer risk. We identified twelve chemicals or chemical groups that were both linked to breast cancer and were firefighter occupational exposures, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, volatile aromatics, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, persistent organohalogens, and halogenated organophosphate flame retardants. Many of these were found at elevated levels in firefighting environments and were statistically significantly higher in firefighters after firefighting or when compared to the general population. Common exposure sources included combustion byproducts, diesel fuel and exhaust, firefighting foams, and flame retardants. Our findings highlight breast-cancer-related chemical exposures in the firefighting profession to guide equitable worker’s compensation policies and exposure reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Firefighters’ Occupational Exposures and Health Risks)

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14 pages, 634 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of Toxicological Profile of Fentanyl—A 2024 Update

by Jessica Williamson and Ali Kermanizadeh

Toxics 2024, 12(10), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12100690 - 24 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5551

Abstract

Fentanyl and its analogues are synthetic opioids of varying potencies that are unfortunately heavily abused. Over the last 15 years, fentanyl and its analogues have contributed to the increasing prominence of hospitalisation and numerous deaths due to drug overdose. In this comprehensive literature [...] Read more.

Fentanyl and its analogues are synthetic opioids of varying potencies that are unfortunately heavily abused. Over the last 15 years, fentanyl and its analogues have contributed to the increasing prominence of hospitalisation and numerous deaths due to drug overdose. In this comprehensive literature review, the mechanism of toxicity of the drug in humans is evaluated. A systematic approach was used whereby the relevant literature has been detailed where the toxicity of fentanyl and/or its analogues to different organs/systems were investigated. Furthermore, the review covers the post-mortem toxicological data and demographic information from past fatal cases where fentanyl was believed to be involved. Such insight into fentanyl toxicity is useful as an aid to better understand the toxic doses of the drug and the suspected mechanism of action and the unexpected complications associated with overdose incidences involving the drug. Finally, the review offers an overview of the traditional and emerging test systems used to investigate the adverse effects of fentanyl on human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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29 pages, 1448 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) Affect Female Reproductive Health: Epidemiological Evidence and Underlying Mechanisms

by Rui Qu, Jingxuan Wang, Xiaojie Li, Yan Zhang, Tailang Yin and Pan Yang

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 678; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090678 - 18 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4453

Abstract

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) have been extensively used across numerous industries and consumer goods. Due to their high persistence and mobility, they are ubiquitous in the environment. Exposure to PFAS occurs in people via multiple pathways such as dermal contact, water supply, [...] Read more.

PFAS (per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances) have been extensively used across numerous industries and consumer goods. Due to their high persistence and mobility, they are ubiquitous in the environment. Exposure to PFAS occurs in people via multiple pathways such as dermal contact, water supply, air inhalation, and dietary intake. Even if some PFAS are being phased out because of their persistent presence in the environment and harmful impacts on human health, mixes of replacement and legacy PFAS will continue to pollute the ecosystem. Numerous toxicological investigations have revealed harmful effects of PFAS exposure on female reproductive health, e.g., polycystic ovaries syndrome, premature ovarian failure, endometriosis, reproductive system tumors, pregnancy complications, and adverse pregnancy outcomes. Despite extensive epidemiological studies on the reproductive toxicity of PFAS, research findings remain inconsistent, and the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. In this review, we give an in-depth description of the sources and pathways of PFAS, and then review the reproductive toxicity of PFAS and its possible mechanisms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Traditional and Emerging Pollutants: Human Exposure Profiles and Health Effects)

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22 pages, 2278 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Perspectives on the Toxic Effects of Micro- and Nanoplastics on the Environment: A Bibliometric Analysis of the 2014 to 2023 Period

by Xianhong Li and Zhonghong Li

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 676; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090676 - 16 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2737

Abstract

Over the past decade, micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have garnered significant attention due to their frequent detection in and potential toxic effects on the environment and organisms, making them a serious threat to human health. To comprehensively understand the research on MNPs’ toxicity, [...] Read more.

Over the past decade, micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs) have garnered significant attention due to their frequent detection in and potential toxic effects on the environment and organisms, making them a serious threat to human health. To comprehensively understand the research on MNPs’ toxicity, we employed the R language-based Bibliometrix toolkit (version 4.3.0), VOSviewer (version 1.6.11) and CiteSpace (version 6.3.R1) to perform statistical and visual analyses of 3541 articles pertaining to MNPs’ toxicity between 2014 and 2023, which were retrieved from the Web of Science Core Collection (WOSCC) database. The analysis revealed that research related to MNPs’ toxicity has experienced a rapid increase in recent years. China’s particularly prominent influence in the field of MNPs’ toxicity is evidenced by its academic exchanges and the establishment of a mature cooperation system with other countries (regions), such as the USA and Germany. Studies related to MNPs’ toxicity are primarily published in leading journals, including the Science of the Total Environment, Environmental Pollution, and the Journal of Hazardous Materials. The Chinese Academy of Sciences was identified as the leading institution in terms of research on MNPs’ toxicity, contributing 203 papers to the total number of studies published. Keyword co-occurrence and burst analyses indicated that the current research on MNPs’ toxicity mainly focuses on the toxic effects of MNPs on aquatic organisms, the combined toxicity of MNPs and other contaminants, and the toxic effects and mechanisms of MNPs. Future research should integrate computational toxicology and toxicomics to enhance our understanding of MNPs’ toxicity mechanisms and assess the potential health risks posed by atmospheric MNPs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Novel Methods in Toxicology Research)

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21 pages, 1882 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Comprehensive Review of Lab-Scale Studies on Removing Hexavalent Chromium from Aqueous Solutions by Using Unmodified and Modified Waste Biomass as Adsorbents

by Manikant Tripathi, Sukriti Pathak, Ranjan Singh, Pankaj Singh, Pradeep Kumar Singh, Awadhesh Kumar Shukla, Sadanand Maurya, Sukhminderjit Kaur and Babita Thakur

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090657 - 8 Sep 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2595

Abstract

Anthropogenic activities and increasing human population has led to one of the major global problems of heavy metal contamination in ecosystems and to the generation of a huge amount of waste material biomass. Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is the major contaminant introduced by various [...] Read more.

Anthropogenic activities and increasing human population has led to one of the major global problems of heavy metal contamination in ecosystems and to the generation of a huge amount of waste material biomass. Hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)] is the major contaminant introduced by various industrial effluents and activities into the ecosystem. Cr(VI) is a known mutagen and carcinogen with numerous detrimental effects on the health of humans, plants, and animals, jeopardizing the balance of ecosystems. Therefore, the remediation of such a hazardous toxic metal pollutant from the environment is necessary. Various physical and chemical methods are available for the sequestration of toxic metals. However, adsorption is recognized as a more efficient technology for Cr(VI) remediation. Adsorption by utilizing waste material biomass as adsorbents is a sustainable approach in remediating hazardous pollutants, thus serving the dual purpose of remediating Cr(VI) and exploiting waste material biomass in an eco- friendly manner. Agricultural biomass, industrial residues, forest residues, and food waste are the primary waste material biomass that could be employed, with different strategies, for the efficient sequestration of toxic Cr(VI). This review focuses on the use of diverse waste biomass, such as industrial and agricultural by-products, for the effective remediation of Cr(VI) from aqueous solutions. The review also focuses on the operational conditions that improve Cr(VI) remediation, describes the efficacy of various biomass materials and modifications, and assesses the general sustainability of these approaches to reducing Cr(VI) pollution. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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20 pages, 1077 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Plant Defense Mechanisms against Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Contamination: Insights into the Role of Extracellular Vesicles

by Muttiah Barathan, Sook Luan Ng, Yogeswaran Lokanathan, Min Hwei Ng and Jia Xian Law

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 653; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090653 - 5 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2053

Abstract

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent organic pollutants that pose significant environmental and health risks. These compounds originate from both natural phenomena, such as volcanic activity and wildfires, and anthropogenic sources, including vehicular emissions, industrial processes, and fossil fuel combustion. Their classification as [...] Read more.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are persistent organic pollutants that pose significant environmental and health risks. These compounds originate from both natural phenomena, such as volcanic activity and wildfires, and anthropogenic sources, including vehicular emissions, industrial processes, and fossil fuel combustion. Their classification as carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic substances link them to various cancers and health disorders. PAHs are categorized into low-molecular-weight (LMW) and high-molecular-weight (HMW) groups, with HMW PAHs exhibiting greater resistance to degradation and a tendency to accumulate in sediments and biological tissues. Soil serves as a primary reservoir for PAHs, particularly in areas of high emissions, creating substantial risks through ingestion, dermal contact, and inhalation. Coastal and aquatic ecosystems are especially vulnerable due to concentrated human activities, with PAH persistence disrupting microbial communities, inhibiting plant growth, and altering ecosystem functions, potentially leading to biodiversity loss. In plants, PAH contamination manifests as a form of abiotic stress, inducing oxidative stress, cellular damage, and growth inhibition. Plants respond by activating antioxidant defenses and stress-related pathways. A notable aspect of plant defense mechanisms involves plant-derived extracellular vesicles (PDEVs), which are membrane-bound nanoparticles released by plant cells. These PDEVs play a crucial role in enhancing plant resistance to PAHs by facilitating intercellular communication and coordinating defense responses. The interaction between PAHs and PDEVs, while not fully elucidated, suggests a complex interplay of cellular defense mechanisms. PDEVs may contribute to PAH detoxification through pollutant sequestration or by delivering enzymes capable of PAH degradation. Studying PDEVs provides valuable insights into plant stress resilience mechanisms and offers potential new strategies for mitigating PAH-induced stress in plants and ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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22 pages, 3647 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Surfactant-Based Chemical Washing to Remediate Oil-Contaminated Soil: The State of Knowledge

by Yanxin Zhao, Yuhuan Sun, Haihan Sun, Fang Zuo, Shaoping Kuang, Shuwu Zhang and Fayuan Wang

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 648; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090648 - 4 Sep 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2456

Abstract

As the energy demand increases, there is a significant expansion and utilization of oil resources, resulting in the inevitable occurrence of environmental pollution. Oil has been identified as a prevalent soil contaminant, posing substantial risks to the soil ecosystems. The remediation of soil [...] Read more.

As the energy demand increases, there is a significant expansion and utilization of oil resources, resulting in the inevitable occurrence of environmental pollution. Oil has been identified as a prevalent soil contaminant, posing substantial risks to the soil ecosystems. The remediation of soil contaminated with oil is a formidable undertaking. Increasing evidence shows that chemical washing, a remediation technique employing chemical reagents like surfactants to augment the solubilization, desorption, and separation of petroleum hydrocarbons in soil, proves to be an efficacious approach, but the latest advances on this topic have not been systematically reviewed. Here, we present the state of knowledge about the surfactant-based chemical washing to remediate oil-contaminated soil. Using the latest data, the present article systematically summarizes the advancements on ex situ chemical washing of oil pollution and provides a concise summary of the underlying principles. The use of various surfactants in chemical washing and the factors influencing remediation efficiency are highlighted. Based on the current research status and knowledge gaps, future perspectives are proposed to facilitate chemical washing of oil-polluted soil. This review can help recognize the application of chemical washing in the remediation of oil-polluted soil. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Toxicity Reduction and Environmental Remediation)

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26 pages, 686 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Which Environmental Pollutants Are Toxic to Our Ears?—Evidence of the Ototoxicity of Common Substances

by Gregory M. Zarus, Patricia Ruiz, Rae Benedict, Stephan Brenner, Krystin Carlson, Layna Jeong and Thais C. Morata

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 650; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090650 - 4 Sep 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3027

Abstract

Ototoxicity refers to the adverse effects of substances on auditory or vestibular functions. This study examines the evidence of ototoxicity’s association with exposure to common environmental pollutants, as documented in toxicological profiles by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Our aim [...] Read more.

Ototoxicity refers to the adverse effects of substances on auditory or vestibular functions. This study examines the evidence of ototoxicity’s association with exposure to common environmental pollutants, as documented in toxicological profiles by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. Our aim was to evaluate whether the evidence supports modifying the charting of ototoxic effects in the summary tables of these toxicological profiles and providing a guide for scientists to access these data. Health outcomes of interest included hearing loss, vestibular effects, cochlear lesions, tonal alterations, cellular damage, and ototoxicity-related outcomes (neurological, nephrotoxic, hepatic, and developmental effects). We obtained ototoxicity information for 62 substances. Hearing-related effects were reported, along with neurological effects. Overall, 26 profiles reported strong evidence of ototoxicity, including 13 substances previously designated as ototoxic by other health and safety agencies. Commonly studied outcomes included hearing loss, damage to ear anatomy, and auditory dysfunction. Vestibular dysfunction and tinnitus are rarely studied. Our findings highlight the lack of conclusive evidence of ototoxic properties for many substances, especially for pesticides and herbicides. This review supports charting the evidence of ototoxicity separately in toxicological profiles’ summary tables. Improving the communication of ototoxicity-related health effects might impact their recognition and prompt further research. A stronger evidence base could support improved prevention efforts in terms of serious health outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ototoxic Chemical Exposures and Public Health)

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26 pages, 6113 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Methods Using Marine Aquatic Photoautotrophs along the Qatari Coastline to Remediate Oil and Gas Industrial Water

by Roda F. Al-Thani and Bassam T. Yasseen

Toxics 2024, 12(9), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12090625 - 24 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1956

Abstract

Qatar and other Gulf States have a diverse range of marine vegetation that is adapted to the stressful environmental conditions of seawater. The industrial wastewater produced by oil and gas activities adds further detrimental conditions for marine aquatic photosynthetic organisms on the Qatari [...] Read more.

Qatar and other Gulf States have a diverse range of marine vegetation that is adapted to the stressful environmental conditions of seawater. The industrial wastewater produced by oil and gas activities adds further detrimental conditions for marine aquatic photosynthetic organisms on the Qatari coastlines. Thus, these organisms experience severe stress from both seawater and industrial wastewater. This review discusses the biodiversity in seawater around Qatar, as well as remediation methods and metabolic pathways to reduce the negative impacts of heavy metals and petroleum hydrocarbons produced during these activities. The role of microorganisms that are adjacent to or associated with these aquatic marine organisms is discussed. Exudates that are released by plant roots enhance the role of microorganisms to degrade organic pollutants and immobilize heavy metals. Seaweeds may have other roles such as biosorption and nutrient uptake of extra essential elements to avoid or reduce eutrophication in marine environments. Special attention is paid to mangrove forests and their roles in remediating shores polluted by industrial wastewater. Seagrasses (Halodule uninervis, Halophila ovalis, and Thalassia hemprichii) can be used as promising candidates for phytoremediation or bioindicators for pollution status. Some genera among seaweeds that have proven efficient in accumulating the most common heavy metals found in gas activities and biodegradation of petroleum hydrocarbons are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occurrence, Accumulation, and Impacts of Environmental Pollutants in Aquatic Systems)

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25 pages, 2798 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Unveiling the Mysteries of Contrast-Induced Acute Kidney Injury: New Horizons in Pathogenesis and Prevention

by Zhong Wang, Qiuhan Wang and Xuezhong Gong

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080620 - 22 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4282

Abstract

The utilization of contrast media (CM) in clinical diagnostic imaging and interventional procedures has escalated, leading to a gradual increase in the incidence of contrast-induced acute kidney injury (CI-AKI). Presently, the scarcity of effective pharmacological treatments for CI-AKI poses significant challenges to clinical [...] Read more.

The utilization of contrast media (CM) in clinical diagnostic imaging and interventional procedures has escalated, leading to a gradual increase in the incidence of contrast-induced acute kidney injury (CI-AKI). Presently, the scarcity of effective pharmacological treatments for CI-AKI poses significant challenges to clinical management. Firstly, we explore the pathogenesis of CI-AKI in this review. Beyond renal medullary ischemia and hypoxia, oxidative stress, cellular apoptosis, and inflammation, emerging mechanisms such as ferroptosis, release of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), and nitrosative stress, which offer promising avenues for the management of CI-AKI, are identified. Secondly, a comprehensive strategy for the early prevention of CI-AKI is introduced. Investigating the risk factors associated with CI-AKI is essential for the timely identification of high-risk groups. Additionally, exploring early sensitive biomarkers is crucial for early diagnosis. A synergistic approach that combines these sensitive biomarkers, CI-AKI risk factors, and disease risk prediction models enhances both the accuracy and efficiency of early diagnostic processes. Finally, we explore recent pharmacological and non-pharmacological interventions for the management of Cl-AKI. Beyond the traditional focus on the antioxidant N-acetylcysteine (NAC), we look at active compounds from traditional Chinese medicine, including tetramethylpyrazine (TMP), salvianolic acid B (Sal B), as well as emerging preventive medications like N-acetylcysteine amide (NACA), alprostadil, and others, which all showed potential benefits in animal and clinical studies for CI-AKI prevention. Furthermore, innovative strategies such as calorie restriction (CR), enhanced external counterpulsation (EECP), and mesenchymal stem cell therapy are highlighted as providing fresh insights into Cl-AKI prevention and management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Nephrotoxicity Induced by Drugs and Chemicals in the Environment)

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26 pages, 863 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Mixtures of Micro and Nanoplastics and Contaminants of Emerging Concern in Environment: What We Know about Their Toxicological Effects

by Marina Bastante-Rabadán and Karina Boltes

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 589; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080589 - 13 Aug 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2128

Abstract

In real environments, pollutants do not occur in isolation. Instead, they can be found in complex mixtures with effects that are completely different from those of the individual components. In this review, articles from 2017 to May 2024 have been selected to provide [...] Read more.

In real environments, pollutants do not occur in isolation. Instead, they can be found in complex mixtures with effects that are completely different from those of the individual components. In this review, articles from 2017 to May 2024 have been selected to provide an overview of the existing knowledge on complex mixtures between micropollutants and micro and nanoplastics in organisms in terrestrial and aquatic environments. It was found that the corresponding toxicological parameters to determine the interaction between the compounds were not calculated in most of the literature reviewed. Our analysis shows that, in aquatic environments, synergistic effects have been found more frequently than antagonistic effects. In terrestrial environments, the joint toxicological action of microplastics or nanoplastics with emerging contaminants has been less studied, but synergistic effects may also predominate. Future work should thoroughly investigate the nature of the interactions in order to properly assess the risk posed by this cocktail of compounds in ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Strategies for Detection and Bioremediation of Contaminated Water and Soil)

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21 pages, 732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Microplastics as a Threat to Aquatic Ecosystems and Human Health

by Agata Witczak, Laura Przedpełska, Kamila Pokorska-Niewiada and Jacek Cybulski

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 571; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080571 - 5 Aug 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5596

Abstract

The threat posed by microplastics has become one of the world’s most serious problems. Recent reports indicate that the presence of microplastics has been documented not only in coastal areas and beaches, but also in water reservoirs, from which they enter the bodies [...] Read more.

The threat posed by microplastics has become one of the world’s most serious problems. Recent reports indicate that the presence of microplastics has been documented not only in coastal areas and beaches, but also in water reservoirs, from which they enter the bodies of aquatic animals and humans. Microplastics can also bioaccumulate contaminants that lead to serious damage to aquatic ecosystems. The lack of comprehensive data makes it challenging to ascertain the potential consequences of acute and chronic exposure, particularly for future generations. It is crucial to acknowledge that there is still a substantial need for rapid and effective techniques to identify microplastic particles for precise evaluation. Additionally, implementing legal regulations, limiting plastic production, and developing biodegradation methods are promising solutions, the implementation of which could limit the spread of toxic microplastics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Pollution and Food Safety)

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18 pages, 1413 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Effects of Insecticide and Herbicides on Thyroid Disturbances in Zebrafish

by Tingting Ma, Xiangji An, Peng Wu, Xiaoli He and Yongming Luo

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 570; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080570 - 3 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2439

Abstract

Thyroid cancer usually begins with thyroid dysfunction and nodules and has become the most common cancer globally, especially in women. Although the causes of thyroid dysfunction are complex, the presence of environmental pollutants, especially certain pesticides as established mutagens, has been widely accepted. [...] Read more.

Thyroid cancer usually begins with thyroid dysfunction and nodules and has become the most common cancer globally, especially in women. Although the causes of thyroid dysfunction are complex, the presence of environmental pollutants, especially certain pesticides as established mutagens, has been widely accepted. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) have similar toxic reactions and signal transduction pathways to humans and are very similar to humans in physiology, development, and metabolic function. Here, the direct toxicity effects and mechanisms of different insecticides and herbicides on zebrafish thyroid functions and indirect toxicity effects originating from thyroid dysfunction were summarized and compared. The overall toxicity of insecticides on the zebrafish thyroid was greater than that of herbicides based on effective concentrations. Penpropathrin and atrazine were more typical thyroid disruptors than other pesticides. Meanwhile, chiral pesticides showed more sophisticated single/combined toxicity effects on both parental and offspring zebrafish. Besides thyroid hormone levels and HPT axis-related gene expression alteration, developmental toxicity, immunotoxicity, and oxidative damage effects were all observed. These data are necessary for understanding the thyroid interference effect of pesticides on humans and for screening for thyroid disruptors in surface water with zebrafish models for the pre-assessment of human health risks and ecological risk control in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecotoxicity Induced by Pesticides Exposure Volume II)

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16 pages, 2901 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs) and Their Potential Effects on Female Reproductive Diseases

by Yuqing Yi, Yang Feng, Yuechen Shi, Jiaming Xiao, Ming Liu and Ke Wang

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 539; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080539 - 26 Jul 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2517

Abstract

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of anthropogenic organic compounds widely present in the natural and human living environments. These emerging persistent pollutants can enter the human body through multiple channels, posing risks to human health. In particular, exposure to PFASs [...] Read more.

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of anthropogenic organic compounds widely present in the natural and human living environments. These emerging persistent pollutants can enter the human body through multiple channels, posing risks to human health. In particular, exposure to PFASs in women may cause a series of reproductive health hazards and infertility. Based on a review of the existing literature, this study preliminarily summarizes the effects of PFAS exposure on the occurrence and development of female reproductive endocrine diseases, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), endometriosis, primary ovarian insufficiency (POI), and diminished ovarian reserve (DOR). Furthermore, we outline the relevant mechanisms through which PFASs interfere with the physiological function of the female ovary and finally highlight the role played by nutrients in reducing the reproductive health hazards caused by PFASs. It is worth noting that the physiological mechanisms of PFASs in the above diseases are still unclear. Therefore, it is necessary to further study the molecular mechanisms of PFASs in female reproductive diseases and the role of nutrients in this process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Human Exposure to per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs): Toxicity, Health Effects, and Mitigation)

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14 pages, 737 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Review of the Literature on Episodes of Acute Fentanyl Intoxication in Pediatric Age and Toxicological Applications

by Matteo Antonio Sacco, Saverio Gualtieri, Alessandro Pasquale Tarallo, Lucia Tarda, Maria Cristina Verrina, Andrea Costa and Isabella Aquila

Toxics 2024, 12(8), 534; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12080534 - 24 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2872

Abstract

Fentanyl is an opioid with powerful analgesic effects and a high speed of action. Due to its pharmacological properties, this molecule has therapeutic application as an anesthetic in surgery or as palliative therapy for cancer patients. Unfortunately, in recent years, the easy availability [...] Read more.

Fentanyl is an opioid with powerful analgesic effects and a high speed of action. Due to its pharmacological properties, this molecule has therapeutic application as an anesthetic in surgery or as palliative therapy for cancer patients. Unfortunately, in recent years, the easy availability of this substance, the low cost and the illegal online market have favored the large-scale diffusion of fentanyl. Fentanyl is available in different forms, including nasal spray, oral patches, soluble capsules, aerosol or the new version of fentanyl mixed with other drugs, making its use very widespread. Subjects of various ages are involved in fentanyl consumption, including minors that have not yet reached adolescence. In this work, we performed a literature review using the search engines PubMed NCBI and SCOPUS regarding episodes of acute fentanyl intoxication occurring in those of a pediatric age using the Mesh Terms “fentanyl” AND “overdose” AND “children”. The inclusion criteria were English papers published in the last 10 years regarding the cases of children under the age of 10. We evaluated the most frequent methods of intake and the circumstances of such episodes. In cases of death, we analyzed the autopsy, the toxicological findings and the investigations carried out. The review results show that in this age group (under < 10 y.o. s), it is possible to identify the risk factors for fentanyl intake, such as the presence of this molecule within the family unit due to drug addiction or medical therapy. The results also demonstrate a significant risk of underestimation of this phenomenon, since the molecule is often not investigated through adequate toxicological analysis. These results, therefore, suggest always carrying out toxicological investigations in the case of suspected fentanyl intoxication, both on patients or cadavers. The investigations must always include a urinary screening for opiates, and the request for a second level analysis with molecule dosage in cases of positivity or in cases of strong suspicion for assumption. In cases of intoxication in a family context of drug addiction, it is necessary to investigate the chronicity of the intake through hair analysis and evaluate the possible co-administration of other drugs. In conclusion, we suggest a protocol, applicable both on patients or cadavers, which can be useful for physicians and forensic pathologists in order to promptly identify these cases and allow for the reporting of them to the judicial authorities with the adoption of strict prevention and control measures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Drugs Toxicity)

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26 pages, 3181 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

A Comprehensive Bibliometric Study in the Context of Chemical Hazards in Coffee

by Grobert A. Guadalupe, Dorila E. Grandez-Yoplac, Ligia García and Eva Doménech

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 526; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070526 - 22 Jul 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3298

Abstract

The research aimed to carefully review the chemical hazards linked to the coffee production chain to analyse the risks and opportunities for consumers and the environment, as well as identify potential knowledge gaps. The Scopus database was consulted from 1949 to April 2024 [...] Read more.

The research aimed to carefully review the chemical hazards linked to the coffee production chain to analyse the risks and opportunities for consumers and the environment, as well as identify potential knowledge gaps. The Scopus database was consulted from 1949 to April 2024 to conduct a bibliometric analysis. As a result, 680 articles were analysed. Results indicated a significant increase in research activity since 2015. China, Brazil, and the USA were the leading countries in scientific production and collaborations. The most prolific journals in this field were Chemosphere, Science of the Total Environment, Food Chemistry, Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, and Journal of Environmental Management, all of which are in the first quartile. The word analysis revealed two main themes: the first focuses on the chemical hazards of coffee and their impact on health, while the second explores the waste generated during coffee production and its potential for reuse. The topics covered in the research include the composition of coffee, associated chemical hazards, possible health risks, and ways to reuse waste for environmental protection. Future research should concentrate on optimising techniques and processes to ensure quality, safety, and sustainability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Agrochemicals and Food Toxicology)

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11 pages, 859 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Ocular Surface Fluid: More than a Matrix

by Ivan Šoša

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 513; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070513 - 16 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2216

Abstract

Although the eye can be subjected to therapeutic manipulation, some of its structures are highly inaccessible. Thus, conventional therapeutic administration pathways, such as topical or systemic routes, usually show significant limitations in the form of low ocular penetration or the appearance of side [...] Read more.

Although the eye can be subjected to therapeutic manipulation, some of its structures are highly inaccessible. Thus, conventional therapeutic administration pathways, such as topical or systemic routes, usually show significant limitations in the form of low ocular penetration or the appearance of side effects linked to physiology, among others. The critical feature of many xenobiotics is the drug gradient from the concentrated tear reservoir to the relatively barren corneal and conjunctival epithelia, which forces a passive route of absorption. The same is true in the opposite direction, towards the ocular surface (OS). With the premise that tears can be regarded as equivalent to or a substitute for plasma, researchers may determine drug concentrations in the OS fluid. Within this framework, a survey of scholarly sources on the topic was conducted. It provided an overview of current knowledge, allowing the identification of relevant theories, methods, and gaps in the existing research that can be employed in subsequent research. OS fluid (tears particularly) has enormous potential as a source of biological material for external drug screening and as a biomarker of various systemic diseases. Given the numerous alternate matrices, knowledge of their properties is very important in selecting the most appropriate specimens in toxicological analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Identification of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs)

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11 pages, 391 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Monitoring of Pesticide Residues in Chili Peppers Using International Pesticide Monitoring Data for Safety Management

by Minsoo Park, Seo-Hong Kim, Subin Bae and Moo-Hyeog Im

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070508 - 15 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2349

Abstract

Repeated pesticide residue detection in chili peppers in the Republic of Korea has become a serious health concern. Thus, monitoring domestically grown and imported chili peppers for pesticide residues is of great significance. Here, we investigated pesticide residues detected in imported and domestically [...] Read more.

Repeated pesticide residue detection in chili peppers in the Republic of Korea has become a serious health concern. Thus, monitoring domestically grown and imported chili peppers for pesticide residues is of great significance. Here, we investigated pesticide residues detected in imported and domestically grown chili peppers using global pesticide residue monitoring data. Our analysis involved organizing inspection and detection data from different sources. Global pesticide residue monitoring data for chili peppers revealed 139 pesticide types, 43,532 inspections, and 3966 detections (detection rate, 9.11%). Peppers from Mexico were sampled the most (39,927 inspections) and showed the highest number of detected cases (2998 cases). Globally, the top 10 most frequently detected pesticides were clothianidin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, chlorpyrifos, thiacloprid, metalaxyl, myclobutanil, azoxystrobin, carbendazim, and cyhalothrin, with detection rates in the range of 10.52–28.66%. Furthermore, domestic chili pepper pesticide residue monitoring revealed 73 pesticide types, 3535 inspections, and 332 detected cases (detection rate, 9.39%), and the top 10 most frequently detected pesticides were chlorfenapyr, tebuconazole, flonicamid, dinotefuran, boscalid, pyraclostrobin, fluxametamide, thiamethoxam, pyridaben, and azoxystrobin, with detection rates in the range of 13.89–32.58%. These findings may serve as fundamental data for safety management related to chili pepper pesticide residues in the Republic of Korea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Data Science for Environmental Chemical Monitoring)

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26 pages, 2442 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Research Progress on Micro(nano)plastic-Induced Programmed Cell Death Associated with Disease Risks

by Huanpeng Liu, Huiqi Li, Ting Chen, Fan Yu, Qizhuan Lin, Haiyang Zhao, Libo Jin and Renyi Peng

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 493; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070493 - 5 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3070

Abstract

Due to their robust migration capabilities, slow degradation, and propensity for adsorbing environmental pollutants, micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) are pervasive across diverse ecosystems. They infiltrate various organisms within different food chains through multiple pathways including inhalation and dermal contact, and pose a significant environmental challenge [...] Read more.

Due to their robust migration capabilities, slow degradation, and propensity for adsorbing environmental pollutants, micro(nano)plastics (MNPs) are pervasive across diverse ecosystems. They infiltrate various organisms within different food chains through multiple pathways including inhalation and dermal contact, and pose a significant environmental challenge in the 21st century. Research indicates that MNPs pose health threats to a broad range of organisms, including humans. Currently, extensive detection data and studies using experimental animals and in vitro cell culture indicate that MNPs can trigger various forms of programmed cell death (PCD) and can induce various diseases. This review provides a comprehensive and systematic analysis of different MNP-induced PCD processes, including pyroptosis, ferroptosis, autophagy, necroptosis, and apoptosis, based on recent research findings and focuses on elucidating the links between PCD and diseases. Additionally, targeted therapeutic interventions for these diseases are described. This review provides original insights into the opportunities and challenges posed by current research findings. This review evaluates ways to mitigate various diseases resulting from cell death patterns. Moreover, this paper enhances the understanding of the biohazards associated with MNPs by providing a systematic reference for subsequent toxicological research and health risk mitigation efforts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Exposome Analysis and Risk Assessment)

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13 pages, 671 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Metformin as an Emerging Pollutant in the Aquatic Environment: Occurrence, Analysis, and Toxicity

by Yueyue Zheng, Yongjian Shao, Yinan Zhang, Zhiquan Liu, Zirui Zhao, Ranyun Xu, Jiafeng Ding, Wenbing Li, Binhao Wang and Hangjun Zhang

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070483 - 2 Jul 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3371

Abstract

The use of human and veterinary drugs has led to the accumulation of pharmaceuticals in various aquatic environments at progressively increasing levels, exhibiting strong ecological risks. Metformin is widely used as a first-line prescription drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus [...] Read more.

The use of human and veterinary drugs has led to the accumulation of pharmaceuticals in various aquatic environments at progressively increasing levels, exhibiting strong ecological risks. Metformin is widely used as a first-line prescription drug for the treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus as well as a livestock drug. Unlike other drugs, metformin is not metabolized in the body, and almost all of its intake is excreted and released into the aquatic environment via urine and feces, causing adverse effects on aquatic ecosystems. This review provides an overview of the occurrence and detection of metformin in the aquatic environment and its toxic effects on different aquatic organisms (fish, daphnia, rotifers, chlorella). Metformin has been documented in a variety of aqueous environments such as wastewater, surface water, and groundwater as well as drinking water. The wide distribution of metformin in the aqueous environment calls for the development of more accurate detection methods. This paper reviews detection methods for metformin in the aqueous environment and evaluates their advantages and disadvantages. Toxicity studies have shown that metformin can cause adverse reactions in fish, such as oxidative stress, genotoxicity, disruption of intestinal flora, and morphological alterations; it also affects the growth and reproduction of small aquatic organisms. Knowledge gaps in the field of metformin research were assessed, and future research priorities were identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterization and Risk Assessment of Emerging Contaminants in Water)

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29 pages, 867 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Effects of Per- and Polyfluoroalkylated Substances on Female Reproduction

by María Estefanía González-Alvarez, Collins Antwi-Boasiako and Aileen F. Keating

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 455; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070455 - 25 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2991

Abstract

Per- and poly-fluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) are a large group of chemicals that persist both in the environment and in the body. Legacy PFAS, e.g., perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, are implicated as endocrine disruptors and reproductive and developmental toxicants in epidemiological and [...] Read more.

Per- and poly-fluoroalkylated substances (PFAS) are a large group of chemicals that persist both in the environment and in the body. Legacy PFAS, e.g., perfluorooctanoic acid and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid, are implicated as endocrine disruptors and reproductive and developmental toxicants in epidemiological and animal model studies. This review describes female reproductive outcomes of reported studies and includes where associative relationships between PFAS exposures and female reproductive outcomes have been observed as well as where those are absent. In animal models, studies in which PFAS are documented to cause toxicity and where effects are lacking are described. Discrepancies exist in both human and animal studies and are likely attributable to human geographical contamination, developmental status, duration of exposure, and PFAS chemical identity. Similarly, in animal investigations, the model used, exposure paradigm, and developmental status of the female are important and vary widely in documented studies. Taken together, support for PFAS as reproductive and developmental toxicants exists, although the disparity in study conditions and human exposures contribute to the variation in effects noted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances in the Environment: Sources, Fate and Risk Assessments)

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18 pages, 1170 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Potential Early Effect Biomarkers for Ambient Air Pollution Related Mental Disorders

by Lijun Bai, Kai Wang, Dandan Liu and Shaowei Wu

Toxics 2024, 12(7), 454; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12070454 - 24 Jun 2024

Viewed by 2208

Abstract

Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental risks to health, with 99% of the world’s population living where the World Health Organization’s air quality guidelines were not met. In addition to the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, the brain is another potential target [...] Read more.

Air pollution is one of the greatest environmental risks to health, with 99% of the world’s population living where the World Health Organization’s air quality guidelines were not met. In addition to the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, the brain is another potential target of air pollution. Population- and experiment-based studies have shown that air pollution may affect mental health through direct or indirect biological pathways. The evidence for mental hazards associated with air pollution has been well documented. However, previous reviews mainly focused on epidemiological associations of air pollution with some specific mental disorders or possible biological mechanisms. A systematic review is absent for early effect biomarkers for characterizing mental health hazards associated with ambient air pollution, which can be used for early warning of related mental disorders and identifying susceptible populations at high risk. This review summarizes possible biomarkers involved in oxidative stress, inflammation, and epigenetic changes linking air pollution and mental disorders, as well as genetic susceptibility biomarkers. These biomarkers may provide a better understanding of air pollution’s adverse effects on mental disorders and provide future research direction in this arena. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Air Pollution and Health)

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29 pages, 1627 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs in the Aquatic Environment and Bivalves: The State of the Art

by Pedro Pires, André M. P. T. Pereira, Angelina Pena and Liliana J. G. Silva

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 415; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060415 - 5 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2547

Abstract

In recent years, contaminants of emerging concern have been reported in several environmental matrices due to advances in analytical methodologies. These anthropogenic micropollutants are detected at residual levels, representing an ecotoxicological threat to aquatic ecosystems. In particular, the pharmacotherapeutic group of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories [...] Read more.

In recent years, contaminants of emerging concern have been reported in several environmental matrices due to advances in analytical methodologies. These anthropogenic micropollutants are detected at residual levels, representing an ecotoxicological threat to aquatic ecosystems. In particular, the pharmacotherapeutic group of non-steroidal anti-inflammatories (NSAIDs) is one of the most prescribed and used, as well as one of the most frequently detected in the aquatic environment. Bivalves have several benefits as a foodstuff, and also as an environment bioindicator species. Therefore, they are regarded as an ideal tool to assess this issue from both ecotoxicological and food safety perspectives. Thus, the control of these residues in bivalves is extremely important to safeguard environmental health, also ensuring food safety and public health. This paper aims to review NSAIDs in bivalves, observing their consumption, physicochemical characteristics, and mechanisms of action; their environmental occurrence in the aquatic environment and aquatic biota; and their effects on the ecosystem and the existent legal framework. A review of the analytical methodologies for the determination of NSAIDs in bivalves is also presented. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: Monitoring, Impacts and Ecological Risk)

20 pages, 12157 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Global Trends and Hotspots in Research on the Health Risks of Organophosphate Flame Retardants: A Bibliometric and Visual Analysis

by Zhiyuan Du, Yuanyuan Ruan, Jiabin Chen, Jian Fang, Shuo Xiao, Yewen Shi and Weiwei Zheng

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060391 - 27 May 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2945

Abstract

Background: Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are compounds with a wide range of industrial and commercial applications and are mainly used as flame retardants and plasticizers. The global consumption of OPFRs has risen rapidly in recent decades, and they have been widely detected in [...] Read more.

Background: Organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs) are compounds with a wide range of industrial and commercial applications and are mainly used as flame retardants and plasticizers. The global consumption of OPFRs has risen rapidly in recent decades, and they have been widely detected in environmental media. Unfortunately, OPFRs have been associated with many adverse health outcomes. The issue of the health risks of OPFRs is attracting increasing attention. Therefore, there is a need to review the current state of research and trends in this field to help researchers and policymakers quickly understand the field, identify new research directions, and allocate appropriate resources for further development of the OPFR health risk research field. Methods: This study statistically analyzed 1162 relevant publications included in the Web of Science Core Collection from 2003–2023. The internal and external features of the literature, such as publication trends, countries, authors, journals, and keywords, were quantitatively analyzed and visually presented to identify the research hotspots, compositions, and paradigms of the field and to horizontally and vertically analyze the development trends and structural evolution of the field. Results: The development of the field can be divided into three stages, and the field entered a period of rapid development in 2016. China (649 papers) is the most prolific country, followed by the United States (188 papers). The authors STAPLETON HM and WANG Y have the highest combined impact. International collaboration between countries and researchers still needs to be strengthened. Science of The Total Environment is the most frequently published journal (162 papers), and Environmental Science and Technology is the most frequently cited journal (5285 citations). Endocrine disruption, developmental toxicity, and neurotoxicity are the health effects of greatest interest. Conclusions: Future research is expected to be multidisciplinary, and research hotspots may involve a comprehensive assessment of OPFR exposure in the population, exploration of the mechanisms of endocrine-disrupting effects and in vivo metabolic processes, and examination of the health effects of OPFR metabolites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Mode of Action, Toxicity Testing, and Health Risks of Environmental Pollutants)

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15 pages, 1791 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Cadmium Exposure: Mechanisms and Pathways of Toxicity and Implications for Human Health

by Fei Qu and Weiwei Zheng

Toxics 2024, 12(6), 388; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12060388 - 26 May 2024

Cited by 55 | Viewed by 10876

Abstract

Cadmium (Cd), a prevalent environmental contaminant, exerts widespread toxic effects on human health through various biochemical and molecular mechanisms. This review encapsulates the primary pathways through which Cd inflicts damage, including oxidative stress induction, disruption of Ca²⁺ signaling, interference with cellular signaling [...] Read more.

Cadmium (Cd), a prevalent environmental contaminant, exerts widespread toxic effects on human health through various biochemical and molecular mechanisms. This review encapsulates the primary pathways through which Cd inflicts damage, including oxidative stress induction, disruption of Ca²⁺ signaling, interference with cellular signaling pathways, and epigenetic modifications. By detailing the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) of Cd, alongside its interactions with cellular components such as mitochondria and DNA, this paper highlights the extensive damage caused by Cd²⁺ at the cellular and tissue levels. The role of Cd in inducing oxidative stress—a pivotal mechanism behind its toxicity—is discussed with emphasis on how it disrupts the balance between oxidants and antioxidants, leading to cellular damage and apoptosis. Additionally, the review covers Cd’s impact on signaling pathways like Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), and Tumor Protein 53 (p53) pathways, illustrating how its interference with these pathways contributes to pathological conditions and carcinogenesis. The epigenetic effects of Cd, including DNA methylation and histone modifications, are also explored to explain its long-term impact on gene expression and disease manifestation. This comprehensive analysis not only elucidates the mechanisms of Cd toxicity but also underscores the critical need for enhanced strategies to mitigate its public health implications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxic Mode of Action, Toxicity Testing, and Health Risks of Environmental Pollutants)

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22 pages, 2261 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Potential Effects of Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Microplastics: An Overview of Air Contamination

by Priscilla Boccia, Simona Mondellini, Simona Mauro, Miriam Zanellato, Marco Parolini and Elena Sturchio

Toxics 2024, 12(5), 320; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12050320 - 28 Apr 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3444

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants that lead to unavoidable human exposure; they have received increasing attention in recent years and have become an emerging area of research. The greatest concern is the negative impacts of MPs on marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are now ubiquitous environmental contaminants that lead to unavoidable human exposure; they have received increasing attention in recent years and have become an emerging area of research. The greatest concern is the negative impacts of MPs on marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial ecosystems, as well as human health, to the extent that the World Health Organization (WHO) calls for increased research and standardized methods to assess exposure to MPs. Many countries and international organizations are implementing or proposing legislation in this regard. This review aims to summarize the current state of legislation, indoor and outdoor contamination, and potential human health risk due to exposure to airborne MPs, considering that occupational exposure to MPs is also becoming a growing area of concern. Even though research regarding MPs has continuously increased in the last twenty years, the effects of MPs on human health have been scarcely investigated, and toxicity studies are still limited and not directly comparable, due to the lack of standardized studies in this field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Microplastic Pollution and Impact on Aquatic and Terrestrial Ecosystems)

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25 pages, 721 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Developmental Toxicity of Fine Particulate Matter: Multifaceted Exploration from Epidemiological and Laboratory Perspectives

by Ruifeng Yan, Danni Ma, Yutong Liu, Rui Wang, Lifan Fan, Qiqi Yan, Chen Chen, Wenhao Wang, Zhihua Ren, Tingting Ku, Xia Ning and Nan Sang

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 274; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040274 - 6 Apr 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2556

Abstract

Particulate matter of size ≤ 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is a critical environmental threat that considerably contributes to the global disease burden. However, accompanied by the rapid research progress in this field, the existing research on developmental toxicity is still constrained by [...] Read more.

Particulate matter of size ≤ 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is a critical environmental threat that considerably contributes to the global disease burden. However, accompanied by the rapid research progress in this field, the existing research on developmental toxicity is still constrained by limited data sources, varying quality, and insufficient in-depth mechanistic analysis. This review includes the currently available epidemiological and laboratory evidence and comprehensively characterizes the adverse effects of PM_2.5 on developing individuals in different regions and various pollution sources. In addition, this review explores the effect of PM_2.5 exposure to individuals of different ethnicities, genders, and socioeconomic levels on adverse birth outcomes and cardiopulmonary and neurological development. Furthermore, the molecular mechanisms involved in the adverse health effects of PM_2.5 primarily encompass transcriptional and translational regulation, oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and epigenetic modulation. The primary findings and novel perspectives regarding the association between public health and PM_2.5 were examined, highlighting the need for future studies to explore its sources, composition, and sex-specific effects. Additionally, further research is required to delve deeper into the more intricate underlying mechanisms to effectively prevent or mitigate the harmful effects of air pollution on human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicity and Human Health Assessment of Air Pollutants)

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121 pages, 4013 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Comet Assay as a Tool in Human Biomonitoring Studies of Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Chemicals—A Systematic Scoping Review

by Carina Ladeira, Peter Møller, Lisa Giovannelli, Goran Gajski, Anja Haveric, Ezgi Eyluel Bankoglu, Amaya Azqueta, Marko Gerić, Helga Stopper, José Cabêda, Fernanda S. Tonin and Andrew Collins

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040270 - 5 Apr 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 4589

Abstract

Biomonitoring of human populations exposed to chemical substances that can act as potential mutagens or carcinogens, may enable the detection of damage and early disease prevention. In recent years, the comet assay has become an important tool for assessing DNA damage, both in [...] Read more.

Biomonitoring of human populations exposed to chemical substances that can act as potential mutagens or carcinogens, may enable the detection of damage and early disease prevention. In recent years, the comet assay has become an important tool for assessing DNA damage, both in environmental and occupational exposure contexts. To evidence the role of the comet assay in human biomonitoring, we have analysed original research studies of environmental or occupational exposure that used the comet assay in their assessments, following the PRISMA-ScR method (preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses extension for scoping reviews). Groups of chemicals were designated according to a broad classification, and the results obtained from over 300 original studies (n = 123 on air pollutants, n = 14 on anaesthetics, n = 18 on antineoplastic drugs, n = 57 on heavy metals, n = 59 on pesticides, and n = 49 on solvents) showed overall higher values of DNA strand breaks in the exposed subjects in comparison with the unexposed. In summary, our systematic scoping review strengthens the relevance of the use of the comet assay in assessing DNA damage in human biomonitoring studies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental and Occupational Exposure to Chemical Agents and Health Challenges)

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33 pages, 4906 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Review of Explosive Contamination and Bioremediation: Insights from Microbial and Bio-Omic Approaches

by Daniel Corredor, Jessica Duchicela, Francisco J. Flores, Maribel Maya and Edgar Guerron

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040249 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3195

Abstract

Soil pollution by TNT(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), RDX(hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane), and HMX(octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine), resulting from the use of explosives, poses significant challenges, leading to adverse effects such as toxicity and alteration of microbial communities. Consequently, there is a growing need for effective bioremediation strategies to mitigate this damage. This [...] Read more.

Soil pollution by TNT(2,4,6-trinitrotoluene), RDX(hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazacyclohexane), and HMX(octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine), resulting from the use of explosives, poses significant challenges, leading to adverse effects such as toxicity and alteration of microbial communities. Consequently, there is a growing need for effective bioremediation strategies to mitigate this damage. This review focuses on Microbial and Bio-omics perspectives within the realm of soil pollution caused by explosive compounds. A comprehensive analysis was conducted, reviewing 79 articles meeting bibliometric criteria from the Web of Science and Scopus databases from 2013 to 2023. Additionally, relevant patents were scrutinized to establish a comprehensive research database. The synthesis of these findings serves as a critical resource, enhancing our understanding of challenges such as toxicity, soil alterations, and microbial stress, as well as exploring bio-omics techniques like metagenomics, transcriptomics, and proteomics in the context of environmental remediation. The review underscores the importance of exploring various remediation approaches, including mycorrhiza remediation, phytoremediation, bioaugmentation, and biostimulation. Moreover, an examination of patented technologies reveals refined and efficient processes that integrate microorganisms and environmental engineering. Notably, China and the United States are pioneers in this field, based on previous successful bioremediation endeavors. This review underscores research’s vital role in soil pollution via innovative, sustainable bioremediation for explosives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biologically Enhanced Treatments of Hazardous Pollutants in Soil and Water: Biodegradation, Transformation, and Remediation)

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23 pages, 1271 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Toxicological Effects of Naturally Occurring Endocrine Disruptors on Various Human Health Targets: A Rapid Review

by Sara Virtuoso, Carla Raggi, Antonella Maugliani, Francesca Baldi, Donatella Gentili and Laura Narciso

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040256 - 29 Mar 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3396

Abstract

Endocrine-disrupting compounds are chemicals that alter the normal functioning of the endocrine system of living organisms. They can be natural (N-EDCs) or synthetic compounds (S-EDCs). N-EDCs can belong to different groups, such as phytoestrogens (PEs), including flavonoids, or mycotoxins originating from plants or [...] Read more.

Endocrine-disrupting compounds are chemicals that alter the normal functioning of the endocrine system of living organisms. They can be natural (N-EDCs) or synthetic compounds (S-EDCs). N-EDCs can belong to different groups, such as phytoestrogens (PEs), including flavonoids, or mycotoxins originating from plants or fungi, and cyanotoxins, derived from bacteria. Humans encounter these substances in their daily lives. The aim of this rapid review (RR) is to provide a fine mapping of N-EDCs and their toxicological effects on human health in terms of various medical conditions or adverse consequences. This work is based on an extensive literature search and follows a rigorous step-by-step approach (search strategy, analysis strategy and data extraction), to select eligible papers published between 2019 and 2023 in the PubMed database, and to define a set of aspects characterizing N-EDCs and the different human target systems. Of the N-EDCs identified in this RR, flavonoids are the most representative class. Male and female reproductive systems were the targets most affected by N-EDCs, followed by the endocrine, nervous, bone and cardiovascular systems. In addition, the perinatal, pubertal and pregnancy periods were found to be particularly susceptible to natural endocrine disruptors. Considering their current daily use, more toxicological research on N-EDCs is required. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Toxicological Effects of Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals on Human Health)

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40 pages, 10551 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Biochar-Derived Persistent Free Radicals: A Plethora of Environmental Applications in a Light and Shadows Scenario

by Silvana Alfei and Omar Ginoble Pandoli

Toxics 2024, 12(4), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12040245 - 27 Mar 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2627

Abstract

Biochar (BC) is a carbonaceous material obtained by pyrolysis at 200–1000 °C in the limited presence of O₂ from different vegetable and animal biomass feedstocks. BC has demonstrated great potential, mainly in environmental applications, due to its high sorption ability and persistent [...] Read more.

Biochar (BC) is a carbonaceous material obtained by pyrolysis at 200–1000 °C in the limited presence of O₂ from different vegetable and animal biomass feedstocks. BC has demonstrated great potential, mainly in environmental applications, due to its high sorption ability and persistent free radicals (PFRs) content. These characteristics enable BC to carry out the direct and PFRs-mediated removal/degradation of environmental organic and inorganic contaminants. The types of PFRs that are possibly present in BC depend mainly on the pyrolysis temperature and the kind of pristine biomass. Since they can also cause ecological and human damage, a systematic evaluation of the environmental behavior, risks, or management techniques of BC-derived PFRs is urgent. PFRs generally consist of a mixture of carbon- and oxygen-centered radicals and of oxygenated carbon-centered radicals, depending on the pyrolytic conditions. Here, to promote the more productive and beneficial use of BC and the related PFRs and to stimulate further studies to make them environmentally safer and less hazardous to humans, we have first reviewed the most common methods used to produce BC, its main environmental applications, and the primary mechanisms by which BC remove xenobiotics, as well as the reported mechanisms for PFR formation in BC. Secondly, we have discussed the environmental migration and transformation of PFRs; we have reported the main PFR-mediated application of BC to degrade inorganic and organic pollutants, the potential correlated environmental risks, and the possible strategies to limit them. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrated Remediation Processes toward Heavy Metal-Contaminated Environment)

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16 pages, 3066 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Single-Nucleotide Polymorphisms Associated with Mercury Levels and Neurological Symptoms: An Overview

by Jamila Alessandra Perini, Jessica Vilarinho Cardoso, Alana de Oliveira Knesse, Felipe Oliveira Pessoa-Silva, Ana Claudia Santiago de Vasconcellos, Daniel Escorsim Machado and Paulo Cesar Basta

Toxics 2024, 12(3), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030226 - 20 Mar 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2388

Abstract

Mercury (Hg) pollution is a global public health concern because of its adverse effects on the environment and health. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been associated with Hg levels and outcomes. The aim of this review was to describe the research and discuss the [...] Read more.

Mercury (Hg) pollution is a global public health concern because of its adverse effects on the environment and health. Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been associated with Hg levels and outcomes. The aim of this review was to describe the research and discuss the evidence on the genetic susceptibility of Hg-exposed individuals to the development of neurocognitive disorders. A systematic review was performed to identify the genes/SNPs associated with Hg toxicokinetics and that, therefore, affect neurological function in exposed populations. Observational and experimental studies were identified by screening three databases. Thirteen articles were included (quality score 82–100%) and 8124 individuals were evaluated. Hg exposure was mainly fish consumption (77%) and, in 31% of the studies, the Hg levels exceeded the reference limits. Genetic susceptibility to higher Hg levels and neurotoxicity risk in Hg poisoning were associated with eight (ALAD rs1800435, CYP3A4 rs2740574, CYP3A5 rs776746, CYP3A7 rs2257401, GSTP1 rs1695, MT1A rs8052394, MT1M rs2270836, and MT4 rs11643815) and three (MT1A rs8052394, MT1M rs2270837, and MT2A rs10636) SNPs, respectively, and rs8052394 was associated with both outcomes. The MT1A rs8052394 SNP may be used as a susceptibility biomarker to identify individuals at greater risk for higher Hg levels and the development of neurocognitive disorders in metal-exposed populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Oxidative Stress and Neurotoxicity Induced by Chemicals)

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22 pages, 5130 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Integrated Assessment for the Estrogenic Effects of Pyrethroid Compounds: Defining the Molecular Initiating Events and Key Events for the Adverse Outcome Pathway

by Darlene Mae D. Ortiz, Juyoung Park, Handule Lee and Kwangsik Park

Toxics 2024, 12(3), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030218 - 15 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2113

Abstract

Pyrethroids, which are derived from natural insecticides found in chrysanthemum flowers, are widely utilized in various sectors, including agriculture, forestry, horticulture, and personal insect protection. Due to their widespread use, concerns have arisen regarding their potential estrogenic effects on female reproductive health. This [...] Read more.

Pyrethroids, which are derived from natural insecticides found in chrysanthemum flowers, are widely utilized in various sectors, including agriculture, forestry, horticulture, and personal insect protection. Due to their widespread use, concerns have arisen regarding their potential estrogenic effects on female reproductive health. This review aims to address data gaps and inconsistencies in previous studies by defining molecular initiating events and key events within the adverse outcome pathway associated with pyrethroid-induced estrogenic effects. To achieve this, we propose utilizing Integrated Approaches to Testing and Assessment (IATA), which incorporate in vitro assays and in vivo assessments to comprehensively investigate the estrogenic effects of pyrethroids. An initial search was conducted in the PubMed database to identify relevant articles. Subsequently, the findings were classified according to the IATA strategy. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of pyrethroids and their estrogenic effects, identifies data gaps, and highlights the use of IATA in existing studies on the estrogenic effects of various pyrethroids. It emphasizes the urgent need for comprehensive research on the estrogenic effects of pyrethroids and highlights the importance of standardized testing methods like IATA to accurately assess their impact on human and environmental health. By promoting the use of Integrated Testing Strategies (ITSs) and addressing data gaps, researchers and regulators can enhance the accuracy of assessments, ensuring better protection of human and environmental health from the potential estrogenic effects of pyrethroid exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members’ Collection Series: Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals)

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28 pages, 6501 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Trends in Mercury Contamination Distribution among Human and Animal Populations in the Amazon Region

by Irvin Martoredjo, Lenize Batista Calvão Santos, Jéssica Caroline Evangelista Vilhena, Alex Bruno Lobato Rodrigues, Andréia de Almeida, Carlos José Sousa Passos and Alexandro Cezar Florentino

Toxics 2024, 12(3), 204; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12030204 - 7 Mar 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3999

Abstract

Mercury contamination in the Amazon arising from both natural sources and intensive mining activities in the region is a significant public health concern. This metal is used to separate Au from sediments. Accordingly, this study aimed to assess the impact of mining on [...] Read more.

Mercury contamination in the Amazon arising from both natural sources and intensive mining activities in the region is a significant public health concern. This metal is used to separate Au from sediments. Accordingly, this study aimed to assess the impact of mining on mercury contamination in the animal and human populations of the Amazon. This overall objective was pursued through a systematic review of the existing literature to assess the impact of Hg and identify gaps in geographic coverage arising from this assessment. Herein, we employed PECO and PRISMA-ScR protocols to select articles published between 2017 and 2023 based on projected points on a map within the biogeographic boundaries of the Amazon. We found that mercury concentrations increase with trophic levels, reaching high values of 3.7 µg/g in the muscles of predatory fish and 34.9 µg/g in human hair. The mean level of mercury in human hair in the whole (Amazon) region exceeds 6 µg/g, surpassing tolerance levels. Although mining regions show high concentrations of Hg, the highest incidence was observed among populations with fish-based diets. It was concluded that continuous research and monitoring of fish in the region are required in order to accurately assess the risk associated with Hg contamination, especially since fish are the main source of protein in this region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mercury Cycling and Health Effects)

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16 pages, 3642 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Neurotoxicity of Benzotriazole Ultraviolet Stabilizers in Teleost Fishes: A Review

by Mengli Li, Emma Ivantsova, Xuefang Liang and Christopher J. Martyniuk

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020125 - 2 Feb 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3000

Abstract

Plastic additives that maintain integrity have been extensively studied for potential toxicity to fish; however, chemicals that protect polymers from (artificial) UV degradation are less studied. Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVSs) are the most widely used UV stabilizers in plastics and are often used [...] Read more.

Plastic additives that maintain integrity have been extensively studied for potential toxicity to fish; however, chemicals that protect polymers from (artificial) UV degradation are less studied. Benzotriazole UV stabilizers (BUVSs) are the most widely used UV stabilizers in plastics and are often used in sunscreens, cosmetics, paint, and food packaging. BUVSs can negatively affect aquatic wildlife when released into the environment via plastic degradation. In this review, we summarize the distribution of BUVSs globally and discuss neurotoxicological endpoints measured in fish to understand how these plastic additives can affect the neurological health of teleost fishes. BUVSs have been detected in aquatic environments at concentrations ranging from 0.05 up to 99,200 ng/L. Studies show that BUVSs affect behavioral responses and acetylcholinesterase activity, indicators of neurotoxicity. Our computational analysis using transcriptome data suggests certain pathways associated with neurodegeneration are responsive to exposure to BUVSs, like “Complement Activation in Alzheimer’s Disease”. Based on our review, we identify some research needs for future investigations: (1) molecular studies in the central nervous system to define precise mechanisms of neurotoxicity; (2) a wider range of tests for assessing aberrant behaviors given that BUVSs can affect the activity of larval zebrafish; and (3) histopathology of the nervous system to accompany biochemical analyses. These data are expected to enhance understanding of the neurotoxicity potential of benzotriazoles and other plastic additives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Neurotoxicity, Immunotoxicity, and Metabolic Dysfunction of Plastic Pollution in Freshwater and Marine Species)

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17 pages, 1911 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Toxicity of Metal Oxides, Dyes, and Dissolved Organic Matter in Water: Implications for the Environment and Human Health

by Haradhan Kolya and Chun-Won Kang

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020111 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 4971

Abstract

This study delves into the critical issue of water pollution caused by the presence of metal oxides, synthetic dyes, and dissolved organic matter, shedding light on their potential ramifications for both the environment and human health. Metal oxides, ubiquitous in industrial processes and [...] Read more.

This study delves into the critical issue of water pollution caused by the presence of metal oxides, synthetic dyes, and dissolved organic matter, shedding light on their potential ramifications for both the environment and human health. Metal oxides, ubiquitous in industrial processes and consumer products, are known to leach into water bodies, posing a significant threat to aquatic ecosystems. Additionally, synthetic dyes, extensively used in various industries, can persist in water systems and exhibit complex chemical behavior. This review provides a comprehensive examination of the toxicity associated with metal oxides, synthetic dyes, and dissolved organic matter in water systems. We delve into the sources and environmental fate of these contaminants, highlighting their prevalence in natural water bodies and wastewater effluents. The study highlights the multifaceted impacts of them on human health and aquatic ecosystems, encompassing effects on microbial communities, aquatic flora and fauna, and the overall ecological balance. The novelty of this review lies in its unique presentation, focusing on the toxicity of metal oxides, dyes, and dissolved organic matter. This approach aims to facilitate the accessibility of results for readers, providing a streamlined and clear understanding of the reported findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Emerging Contaminants)

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18 pages, 2015 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation as a Bioremediation Technique for Mining Waste

by Samantha M. Wilcox, Catherine N. Mulligan and Carmen Mihaela Neculita

Toxics 2024, 12(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12020107 - 27 Jan 2024

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3632

Abstract

Mining waste represents a global issue due to its potential of generating acidic or alkaline leachate with high concentrations of metals and metalloids (metal(loid)s). Microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is an engineering tool used for remediation. MICP, induced via biological activity, aims to [...] Read more.

Mining waste represents a global issue due to its potential of generating acidic or alkaline leachate with high concentrations of metals and metalloids (metal(loid)s). Microbial-induced calcium carbonate precipitation (MICP) is an engineering tool used for remediation. MICP, induced via biological activity, aims to precipitate calcium carbonate (CaCO₃) or co-precipitate other metal carbonates (MCO₃). MICP is a bio-geochemical remediation method that aims to immobilize or remove metal(loid)s via enzyme, redox, or photosynthetic metabolic pathways. Contaminants are removed directly through immobilization as mineral precipitates (CaCO₃ or MCO₃), or indirectly (via sorption, complexes, or inclusion into the crystal structure). Further, CaCO₃ precipitates deposited on the surface or within the pore spaces of a solid matrix create a clogging effect to reduce contaminant leachate. Experimental research on MICP has shown its promise as a bioremediation technique for mining waste. Additional research is required to evaluate the long-term feasibility and potential by-products of MICP-treated/stabilized waste. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biologically Enhanced Treatments of Hazardous Pollutants in Soil and Water: Biodegradation, Transformation, and Remediation)

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15 pages, 1133 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Association between Ambient Particulate Air Pollution and Soluble Biomarkers of Endothelial Function: A Meta-Analysis

by Kai Wang, Lei Lei, Ge Li, Yang Lan, Wanzhou Wang, Jiaqi Zhu, Qisijing Liu, Lihua Ren and Shaowei Wu

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010076 - 15 Jan 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2232

Abstract

Background: The burden of cardiovascular diseases caused by ambient particulate air pollution is universal. An increasing number of studies have investigated the potential effects of exposure to particulate air pollution on endothelial function, which is one of the important mechanisms for the onset [...] Read more.

Background: The burden of cardiovascular diseases caused by ambient particulate air pollution is universal. An increasing number of studies have investigated the potential effects of exposure to particulate air pollution on endothelial function, which is one of the important mechanisms for the onset and development of cardiovascular disease. However, no previous study has conducted a summary analysis of the potential effects of particulate air pollution on endothelial function. Objectives: To summarize the evidence for the potential effects of short-term exposure to ambient particulate air pollution on endothelial function based on existing studies. Methods: A systematic literature search on the relationship between ambient particulate air pollution and biomarkers of endothelial function including endothelin-1 (ET-1), E-selectin, intercellular cell adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, EMBASE, and Web of Science up to 20 May 2023. Subsequently, a meta-analysis was conducted using a random effects model. Results: A total of 18 studies were included in this meta-analysis. A 10 μg/m³ increase in short-term exposure to ambient PM_2.5 was associated with a 1.55% (95% CI: 0.89%, 2.22%) increase in ICAM-1 and a 1.97% (95% CI: 0.86%, 3.08%) increase in VCAM-1. The associations of ET-1 (0.22%, 95% CI: −4.94%, 5.65%) and E-selectin (3.21%, 95% CI: −0.90% 7.49%) with short-term exposure to ambient PM_2.5 were statistically insignificant. Conclusion: Short-term exposure to ambient PM_2.5 pollution may significantly increase the levels of typical markers of endothelial function, including ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, suggesting potential endothelial dysfunction following ambient air pollution exposure. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Effect of Airborne Contaminants Exposure on Early Health Damage Biomarkers)

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17 pages, 1971 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils: Sources, Influencing Factors, and Remediation Strategies

by Yanan Wan, Jiang Liu, Zhong Zhuang, Qi Wang and Huafen Li

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010063 - 12 Jan 2024

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 18077

Abstract

Soil heavy metal pollution is a global environmental challenge, posing significant threats to eco-environment, agricultural development, and human health. In recent years, advanced and effective remediation strategies for heavy metal-contaminated soils have developed rapidly, and a systematical summarization of this progress is important. [...] Read more.

Soil heavy metal pollution is a global environmental challenge, posing significant threats to eco-environment, agricultural development, and human health. In recent years, advanced and effective remediation strategies for heavy metal-contaminated soils have developed rapidly, and a systematical summarization of this progress is important. In this review paper, first, the anthropogenic sources of heavy metals in agricultural soils, including atmospheric deposition, animal manure, mineral fertilizers, and pesticides, are summarized. Second, the accumulation of heavy metals in crops as influenced by the plant characteristics and soil factors is analyzed. Then, the reducing strategies, including low-metal cultivar selection/breeding, physiological blocking, water management, and soil amendment are evaluated. Finally, the phytoremediation in terms of remediation efficiency and applicability is discussed. Therefore, this review provides helpful guidance for better selection and development of the control/remediation technologies for heavy metal-contaminated agricultural soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Impact of Heavy Metal Contamination on Soil Environment and Advances in Remediation Strategies)

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27 pages, 979 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Emerging Contaminants: An Emerging Risk Factor for Diabetes Mellitus

by Huixia Niu, Manjin Xu, Pengcheng Tu, Yunfeng Xu, Xueqing Li, Mingluan Xing, Zhijian Chen, Xiaofeng Wang, Xiaoming Lou, Lizhi Wu and Shengzhi Sun

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 47; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010047 - 8 Jan 2024

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4398

Abstract

Emerging contaminants have been increasingly recognized as critical determinants in global public health outcomes. However, the intricate relationship between these contaminants and glucose metabolism remains to be fully elucidated. The paucity of comprehensive clinical data, coupled with the need for in-depth mechanistic investigations, [...] Read more.

Emerging contaminants have been increasingly recognized as critical determinants in global public health outcomes. However, the intricate relationship between these contaminants and glucose metabolism remains to be fully elucidated. The paucity of comprehensive clinical data, coupled with the need for in-depth mechanistic investigations, underscores the urgency to decipher the precise molecular and cellular pathways through which these contaminants potentially mediate the initiation and progression of diabetes mellitus. A profound understanding of the epidemiological impact of these emerging contaminants, as well as the elucidation of the underlying mechanistic pathways, is indispensable for the formulation of evidence-based policy and preventive interventions. This review systematically aggregates contemporary findings from epidemiological investigations and delves into the mechanistic correlates that tether exposure to emerging contaminants, including endocrine disruptors, perfluorinated compounds, microplastics, and antibiotics, to glycemic dysregulation. A nuanced exploration is undertaken focusing on potential dietary sources and the consequential role of the gut microbiome in their toxic effects. This review endeavors to provide a foundational reference for future investigations into the complex interplay between emerging contaminants and diabetes mellitus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Environmental Organic Pollutants on Environment and Human Health: The Latest Updates)

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29 pages, 980 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Interaction between Per- and Polyfluorinated Substances (PFAS) and Acetaminophen in Disease Exacerbation—Focusing on Autism and the Gut–Liver–Brain Axis

by Danielle Qiu Yun Jiang and Tai Liang Guo

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010039 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5775

Abstract

This review presents a new perspective on the exacerbation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) through the gut–liver–brain axis. We have summarized evidence reported on the involvement of the gut microbiome and liver inflammation that led to the [...] Read more.

This review presents a new perspective on the exacerbation of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) by per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) through the gut–liver–brain axis. We have summarized evidence reported on the involvement of the gut microbiome and liver inflammation that led to the onset and exacerbation of ASD symptoms. As PFAS are toxicants that particularly target liver, this review has comprehensively explored the possible interaction between PFAS and acetaminophen, another liver toxicant, as the chemicals of interest for future toxicology research. Our hypothesis is that, at acute dosages, acetaminophen has the ability to aggravate the impaired conditions of the PFAS-exposed liver, which would further exacerbate neurological symptoms such as lack of social communication and interest, and repetitive behaviors using mechanisms related to the gut–liver–brain axis. This review discusses their potential interactions in terms of the gut–liver–brain axis and signaling pathways that may contribute to neurological diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The 10th Anniversary of Toxics)

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32 pages, 2910 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

2,4-D Herbicide-Induced Hepatotoxicity: Unveiling Disrupted Liver Functions and Associated Biomarkers

by Rafael Xavier Martins, Matheus Carvalho, Maria Eduarda Maia, Bruno Flor, Terezinha Souza, Thiago Lopes Rocha, Luís M. Félix and Davi Farias

Toxics 2024, 12(1), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics12010035 - 2 Jan 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3248

Abstract

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a widely used herbicide worldwide and is frequently found in water samples. This knowledge has prompted studies on its effects on non-target organisms, revealing significant alterations to liver structure and function. In this review, we evaluated the literature on [...] Read more.

2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) is a widely used herbicide worldwide and is frequently found in water samples. This knowledge has prompted studies on its effects on non-target organisms, revealing significant alterations to liver structure and function. In this review, we evaluated the literature on the hepatotoxicity of 2,4-D, focusing on morphological damages, toxicity biomarkers and affected liver functions. Searches were conducted on PubMed, Web of Science and Scopus and 83 articles were selected after curation. Among these studies, 72% used in vivo models and 30% used in vitro models. Additionally, 48% used the active ingredient, and 35% used commercial formulations in exposure experiments. The most affected biomarkers were related to a decrease in antioxidant capacity through alterations in the activities of catalase, superoxide dismutase and the levels of malondialdehyde. Changes in energy metabolism, lipids, liver function, and xenobiotic metabolism were also identified. Furthermore, studies about the effects of 2,4-D in mixtures with other pesticides were found, as well as hepatoprotection trials. The reviewed data indicate the essential role of reduction in antioxidant capacity and oxidative stress in 2,4-D-induced hepatotoxicity. However, the mechanism of action of the herbicide is still not fully understood and further research in this area is necessary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecotoxicological Effects of Emerging Contaminants on Aquatic Species)

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38 pages, 1819 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Invisible Hand behind Female Reproductive Disorders: Bisphenols, Recent Evidence and Future Perspectives

by Xiaoyun Wu, Yuchai Tian, Huizhen Zhu, Pengchong Xu, Jiyue Zhang, Yangcheng Hu, Xiaotong Ji, Ruifeng Yan, Huifeng Yue and Nan Sang

Toxics 2023, 11(12), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11121000 - 7 Dec 2023

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 6791

Abstract

Reproductive disorders are considered a global health problem influenced by physiological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. The increased exposure to bisphenols, a chemical used in large quantities for the production of polycarbonate plastics, has raised concerns regarding health risks in humans, particularly their [...] Read more.

Reproductive disorders are considered a global health problem influenced by physiological, genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors. The increased exposure to bisphenols, a chemical used in large quantities for the production of polycarbonate plastics, has raised concerns regarding health risks in humans, particularly their endocrine-disrupting effects on female reproductive health. To provide a basis for future research on environmental interference and reproductive health, we reviewed relevant studies on the exposure patterns and levels of bisphenols in environmental matrices and humans (including susceptible populations such as pregnant women and children). In addition, we focused on in vivo, in vitro, and epidemiological studies evaluating the effects of bisphenols on the female reproductive system (the uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, and vagina). The results indicate that bisphenols cause structural and functional damage to the female reproductive system by interfering with hormones; activating receptors; inducing oxidative stress, DNA damage, and carcinogenesis; and triggering epigenetic changes, with the damaging effects being intergenerational. Epidemiological studies support the association between bisphenols and diseases such as cancer of the female reproductive system, reproductive dysfunction, and miscarriage, which may negatively affect the establishment and maintenance of pregnancy. Altogether, this review provides a reference for assessing the adverse effects of bisphenols on female reproductive health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Insights on Environmental Chemical Exposure and Toxicological Mechanism)

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26 pages, 3645 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Pesticides vs. Biopesticides: From Pest Management to Toxicity and Impacts on the Environment and Human Health

by Gabriel Mihăiță Daraban, Raluca-Maria Hlihor and Daniela Suteu

Toxics 2023, 11(12), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11120983 - 4 Dec 2023

Cited by 43 | Viewed by 9953

Abstract

The environmental pollution that occurs in direct response to the widespread use of man-made/conventional pesticides results from many chemicals that require a long period of time, often decades, to degrade. The synthetic nature of pesticides also harms animals, beneficial insects, microorganisms, and plants, [...] Read more.

The environmental pollution that occurs in direct response to the widespread use of man-made/conventional pesticides results from many chemicals that require a long period of time, often decades, to degrade. The synthetic nature of pesticides also harms animals, beneficial insects, microorganisms, and plants, as well as humans. Fortunately, however, there are many natural pesticides, the so-called biopesticides, that are also effective against pests and more importantly, do not interfere with the well-being of ecosystems. Consequently, most biopesticides are safer for use around people and pets than man-made pesticides because, for example, they can be easily washed away from fruits and vegetables. The natural habitat is a rich resource with a wide selection of plants, many of which are also used to treat diseases in humans, animals, and plants. Out of concern for public health, environmental safety, and the stringent regulation of pesticide residues in agricultural commodities, the use of biopesticides is becoming increasingly important, but questions regarding potential pest resistance to these products may arise, just as is the case with conventional pesticides. Therefore, the performance and potential role of biopesticides in the management of plant pests should be prioritized due to their sustainability and importance to human and environmental welfare. In this review, we propose to highlight a scenario in which we discuss in detail the main constraints posed by the use of pesticides compared to biopesticides, starting with issues regarding their definition and continuing on to issues related to their toxicity and their impact on the environment and human health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pesticide Risk Assessment, Emerging and Re-Emerging Problems)

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41 pages, 3243 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Measurement of Atmospheric Black Carbon: A Review

by Zhiqing Zhang, Yuan Cheng, Linlin Liang and Jiumeng Liu

Toxics 2023, 11(12), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11120975 - 1 Dec 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4857

Abstract

Black Carbon (BC), the second-largest contributor to global warming, has detrimental effects on human health and the environment. However, the accurate quantification of BC poses a significant challenge, impeding the comprehensive assessment of its impacts. Therefore, this paper aims to critically review three [...] Read more.

Black Carbon (BC), the second-largest contributor to global warming, has detrimental effects on human health and the environment. However, the accurate quantification of BC poses a significant challenge, impeding the comprehensive assessment of its impacts. Therefore, this paper aims to critically review three quantitative methods for measuring BC: Thermal Optical Analysis (TOA), the Optical Method, and Laser-Induced Incandescence (LII). The determination principles, available commercial instruments, sources of deviation, and correction approaches associated with these techniques are systematically discussed. By synthesizing and comparing the quantitative results reported in previous studies, this paper aims to elucidate the underlying relationships and fundamental disparities among Elemental Carbon (EC), Equivalent Black Carbon (eBC), and Refractory Black Carbon (rBC). Finally, based on the current advancements in BC quantification, recommendations are proposed to guide future research directions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Editorial Board Members' Collection Series: Aerosol Particles)

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18 pages, 385 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Role of Trace Elements in Cardiovascular Diseases

by Christian Wechselberger, Barbara Messner and David Bernhard

Toxics 2023, 11(12), 956; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics11120956 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2947

Abstract

Essential trace elements play an important role in human physiology and are associated with various functions regulating cellular metabolism. Non-essential trace elements, on the other hand, often have well-documented toxicities that are dangerous for the initiation and development of diseases due to their [...] Read more.

Essential trace elements play an important role in human physiology and are associated with various functions regulating cellular metabolism. Non-essential trace elements, on the other hand, often have well-documented toxicities that are dangerous for the initiation and development of diseases due to their widespread occurrence in the environment and their accumulation in living organisms. Non-essential trace elements are therefore regarded as serious environmental hazards that are harmful to health even in low concentrations. Many representatives of these elements are present as pollutants in our environment, and many people may be exposed to significant amounts of these substances over the course of their lives. Among the most common non-essential trace elements are heavy metals, which are also associated with acute poisoning in humans. When these elements accumulate in the body over years of chronic exposure, they often cause severe health damage in a variety of tissues and organs. In this review article, the role of selected essential and non-essential trace elements and their role in the development of exemplary pathophysiological processes in the cardiovascular system will be examined in more detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cadmium and Trace Elements Toxicity)

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