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Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports

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A special issue of Sports (ISSN 2075-4663).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (25 December 2021) | Viewed by 65854

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. John J. McMahon

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Guest Editor

Centre for Health Sciences Research, University of Salford, Salford M6 6PU, UK
Interests: sports biomechanics; strength and conditioning
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Paul Comfort

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Guest Editor

Directorate of Psychology and Sport, University of Salford, Salford M6 6PU, UK
Interests: sports science; exercise science; strength and conditioning; sports biomechanics
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Strength and conditioning coaches who work with high-level athletes will likely conduct routine assessments of their athlete’s performances during key athletic tasks (that are important to the sport) or assessments of their ability to produce maximal force rapidly with primary musculature (e.g., knee flexors/extensors). Because time dedicated to performance assessments in sport is limited, it is important to streamline athlete performance assessments by ensuring that only appropriate tests are conducted during relevant windows of opportunity. Equally, it is important that performance assessment data are analysed and used appropriately and reported to the athlete and coaches in a understandable and visually appealling manner.

The aim of this Special Issue is to publish a series of applied studies that effectively link performance assessment and strength and conditioning decision making. We strongly encourage submissions of studies that have effectively utilised performance assessment results to 1) benchmark athletes’ performances in order to identify upcoming training priorities, 2) evaluate the effectiveness of previous training programmes (e.g., end of mesocycle), 3) identify acute fatigue and altered training volume loads accordingly. We also invite applied reviews that provide examples of and recommendations on how to best integrate performance assessments and strength and conditioning in sport.

Dr. John J. McMahon
Dr. Paul Comfort
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Sports is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

fitness testing
data analysis
training programmes
elite sport
data presentation

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

11 pages, 1161 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Competitive Level on Stretch-Shortening Cycle Function in Young Female Gymnasts

by Sylvia Moeskops, Jason S. Pedley, Jon L. Oliver and Rhodri S. Lloyd

Sports 2022, 10(7), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10070107 - 06 Jul 2022

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1640

Abstract

This cross-sectional study investigated how stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function and kinetic variables differed between young female gymnasts of varying competitive levels. Drop jump (DJ) force–time profiles were examined in 118 female gymnasts, sub-divided by competitive level (n = 21 recreational, n = 41 regional and n = 50 elite). DJ force–time data were analyzed to calculate performance and kinetic variables. Participants’ SSC function was categorized as poor, moderate, or good, depending on the presence of an impact peak and spring-like behavior. A high proportion of gymnasts across each group were categorized as having “good” or “moderate” SSC function (i.e., >94.8%), with a trend of increasingly better SSC function observed with competitive level. Significant differences in reactive strength index, contact time, time of landing peak force, relative propulsive peak force, impulse, and ratio of braking: propulsive impulse were found between the elite and recreational group (p < 0.05). While SSC function was generally good to moderate, elite gymnasts had a more desirable kinetic jump-landing strategy than recreational level gymnasts. Drop jump kinetic variables appear to distinguish between elite and recreational gymnasts but not between regional standard gymnasts. Practitioners should consider the kinetic profile of gymnasts when benchmarking and setting training objectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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21 pages, 14156 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contextual Variation in External and Internal Workloads across the Competitive Season of a Collegiate Women’s Soccer Team

by Lauren E. Rentz, William Guy Hornsby, Wesley J. Gawel, Bobby G. Rawls, Jad Ramadan and Scott M. Galster

Sports 2021, 9(12), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9120165 - 08 Dec 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2749

Abstract

As sports technology has continued to develop, monitoring athlete workloads, performance, and recovery has demonstrated boundless benefits for athlete and team success. Specifically, technologies such as global positioning systems (GPS) and heart rate (HR) monitors have granted the opportunity to delve deeper into performance contributors, and how variations may exist based upon context. A team of NCAA Division I women’s soccer athletes were monitored during games throughout one competitive season. Individual athlete, positional groups, and team external and internal workloads were explored for differences based upon game location, opponent ranking, game result, and the final score differential. Game location and opponent ranking were found to have no effect on team-wide absolute or relative external workloads, whereas game result and score differential did. Internal workloads across the team tended to only vary by game half, independent of game context; however, the HR of defenders was determined to be higher during losses as compared to wins (p = 0.0256). Notably, the games that resulted in losses also represented the games with the fewest number of substitutions. These findings suggest high value in monitoring performance and workloads that are characteristic of varying, often multifaceted, contexts. It is hoped that this information can lead to more informed approaches to vital game-time and coaching decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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13 pages, 1324 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Relative Training Load and Match Outcome: Are Professional Soccer Players Actually Undertrained during the In-Season?

by Toni Modric, Mario Jelicic and Damir Sekulic

Sports 2021, 9(10), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9100139 - 08 Oct 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4509

Abstract

Previous studies examined training/match ratios (TMr) to determine the training load relative to the match load, but the influence of the relative training load (RTL) on success in soccer is still unknown. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the possible influence of RTL on final match outcome in soccer (win, draw, and loss). Running performances (RP) of soccer players (n = 21) in the Croatian highest national soccer competition were analyzed during the season 2020–2021. Data were measured by the global positioning system in 14 official matches and 67 training sessions. RTL was assessed by TMr, which were calculated as the ratio of RP during training and match in the same week, evaluating the following measures: TDr (total distance ratio), LIDr (low-intensity distance ratio), RDr (running distance ratio), HIDr (high-intensity distance ratio), ACCr (total accelerations ratio), DECr (total decelerations ratio), HI-ACCr (high-intensity accelerations ratio), HI-DECr (high-intensity decelerations ratio). All TMr were examined separately for each training session within in-season microcycles (categorized as days before the match day, i.e., MD minus). Spearman correlations were used to identify association between match outcome and TMr. The results indicated negative associations between match outcome and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-1 and MD-2). In contrast, positive associations were evidenced between match outcome, and HIDr on MD-3 and TDr, LIDr, ACCr and DECr on MD-5 (p < 0.05; all moderate correlations). These findings demonstrate that final match outcome in soccer was associated with greater RTL of (i) high-intensity running three days before the match, (ii) total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations five days before the match, and (iii) lower RTL of total and low-intensity running, accelerations and decelerations one and two days before the match. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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15 pages, 1753 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Validity and Effects of Placement of Velocity-Based Training Devices

by Raphael Fritschi, Jan Seiler and Micah Gross

Sports 2021, 9(9), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9090123 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8428

Abstract

Velocity-based training (VBT) is a resistance training method by which training variables are manipulated based on kinematic outcomes, e.g., barbell velocity. The better precision for monitoring and manipulating training variables ascribed to VBT assumes that velocity is measured and communicated correctly. This study assessed the validity of several mobile and one stationary VBT device for measuring mean and peak concentric barbell velocity over a range of velocities and exercises, including low- and high-velocity, ballistic and non-ballistic, and plyometric and non-plyometric movements, and to quantify the isolated effect of device attachment point on measurement validity. GymAware (r = 0.90–1, standard error of the estimate, SEE = 0.01–0.08 m/s) and Quantum (r = 0.88–1, SEE = 0.01–0.18 m/s) were most valid for mean and peak velocity, with Vmaxpro (r = 0.92–0.99, SEE = 0.02–0.13 m/s) close behind. Push (r = 0.69–0.96, SEE = 0.03–0.17 m/s) and Flex (r = 0.60–0.94, SEE = 0.02–0.19 m/s) showed poorer validity (especially for higher-velocity exercises), although typical errors for mean velocity in exercises other than hang power snatch were acceptable. Effects of device placement were detectable, yet likely small enough (SEE < 0.1 m/s) to be negligible in training settings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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12 pages, 1073 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Turn Fast and Win: The Importance of Acyclic Phases in Top-Elite Female Swimmers

by Dennis-Peter Born, Joris Kuger, Marek Polach and Michael Romann

Sports 2021, 9(9), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9090122 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3103

Abstract

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of start and turn performances on race times in top-elite female swimmers and provide benchmarks for all performance levels, all swimming strokes, and all race distances of the European Short-Course Championships (EC). The individual races (n = 798) of all female competitors (age: 20.6 ± 3.9 years, FINA points: 792 ± 78) were video-monitored for subsequent analysis of start and turn performances. Benchmarks were established across all competitors of each event based on the 10th, 25th, 50th, 75th, and 90th percentiles. Start and turn performances contributed up to 27.43% and 56.37% to total race time, respectively. Mechanistic analysis revealed that the fastest swimmers had the lowest contribution of the acyclic phases to race time. Therefore, relative to their faster race times, these swimmers were even faster during starts and turns. Multiple linear regression analysis showed large effects of turn performance on 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 m race times (β = 0.616, 0.813, 0.988, 1.004, and 1.011, respectively), while the effect of start performance continuously decreased the longer the race distance. As turn performance may be the distinguishing factor in modern short-course races, benchmarks should be used to set goals and establish training guidelines depending on the targeted race time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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9 pages, 584 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Normative Reference of the Single Leg, Medial Countermovement Jump in Adolescent Youth Ice Hockey Players

by Anthony S. Donskov, Jeffrey S. Brooks and James P. Dickey

Sports 2021, 9(8), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9080105 - 26 Jul 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3480

Abstract

Functional performance tests provide quantitative information on specialized sport movements and are important for documenting training and fatigue. The single leg, medial countermovement jump provides objective measures of frontal plane force, velocity and power, and is relevant for ice hockey players given the similar lateral movement to ice skating. This study measured normative single leg, medial countermovement jump parameters (i.e., vertical and lateral maximum force, average concentric power and average concentric power during the last 100 ms) amongst male youth ice hockey players and assessed interlimb asymmetry in these healthy athletes. Ninety-one elite youth players participated in the study. Participants completed three right and three left jumps. Non-parametric tests were performed to evaluate between-jump and between-group comparisons. Many differences in jump force and power parameters were observed between the 10U/11U and 12U/13U age groups, and the 12U/13U and 14U/15U age groups, but differences were not as consistent between older or younger players. The average asymmetry index for each age group was less than 15% for force parameters, while the power parameters had larger asymmetry indices (between 9% and 22%). Our results provide age-specific reference values and asymmetry indices for male elite youth ice hockey players aged 10–18 years performing the single leg, medial countermovement jump. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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18 pages, 591 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sprint and Jump Mechanical Profiles in Academy Rugby League Players: Positional Differences and the Associations between Profiles and Sprint Performance

by Ben Nicholson, Alex Dinsdale, Ben Jones and Kevin Till

Sports 2021, 9(7), 93; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9070093 - 25 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 4306

Abstract

This cross-sectional study evaluated the sprint and jump mechanical profiles of male academy rugby league players, the differences between positions, and the associations between mechanical profiles and sprint performance. Twenty academy rugby league players performed 40-m sprints and squat jumps at increasing loads (0–80 kg) to determine individual mechanical (force-velocity-power) and performance variables. The mechanical variables (absolute and relative theoretical maximal force-velocity-power, force-velocity linear relationship, and mechanical efficiency) were determined from the mechanical profiles. Forwards had significantly (p < 0.05) greater vertical and horizontal force, momentum but jumped lower (unloaded) and were slower than backs. No athlete presented an optimal jump profile. No associations were found between jump and sprint mechanical variables. Absolute theoretical maximal vertical force significantly (p < 0.05) correlated (r = 0.71–0.77) with sprint momentum. Moderate (r = −0.47) to near-perfect (r = 1.00) significant associations (p < 0.05) were found between sprint mechanical and performance variables. The largest associations shifted from maximum relative horizontal force-power generation and application to maximum velocity capabilities and force application at high velocities as distance increased. The jump and sprint mechanical profiles appear to provide distinctive and highly variable information about academy rugby league players’ sprint and jump capacities. Associations between mechanical variables and sprint performance suggest horizontal and vertical profiles differ and should be trained accordingly. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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13 pages, 7071 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Maximum Strength Benchmarks for Difficult Static Elements on Rings in Male Elite Gymnastics

by Christoph Schärer, Sarina Huber, Pascal Bucher, Claudio Capelli and Klaus Hübner

Sports 2021, 9(6), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060078 - 28 May 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5760

Abstract

On rings, in men’s artistic gymnastics, the general strength requirements for important static elements remain elusive. Therefore, the aim was to describe the relationship between a new conditioning strength test and a maximum strength test of static elements on rings in order to determine the minimal strength level (benchmarks) required to maintain these elements with one’s own body weight. Nineteen elite gymnasts performed a concentric (1RM isoinertial) and eccentric (isokinetic: 0.1 m/s) conditioning strength test for swallow/support scale (supine position) and inverted cross (seated position) on a computer-controlled device and a maximum strength test maintaining these elements for 5 s on rings with counterweight or additional weight. High correlation coefficients were found between the conditioning maximum strength for swallow/support scale (r: 0.65 to 0.92; p < 0.05) and inverted cross (r: 0.62 to 0.69; p > 0.05) and the maximum strength of the elements on rings. Strength benchmarks varied between 56.66% (inverted cross concentric) and 94.10% (swallow eccentric) of body weight. Differences in biomechanical characteristics and technical requirements of strength elements on rings may (inter alia) explain the differences between correlations. Benchmarks of conditioning strength may help coaches and athletes systematize the training of strength elements on rings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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11 pages, 976 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Does the Multistage 20-m Shuttle Run Test Accurately Predict VO_2max in NCAA Division I Women Collegiate Field Hockey Athletes?

by Meghan K. Magee, Jason B. White, Justin J. Merrigan and Margaret T. Jones

Sports 2021, 9(6), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060075 - 26 May 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6311

Abstract

Laboratory assessments of maximal oxygen uptake (VO_2max) are considered the “gold standard” for ascertaining cardiovascular fitness, but they are not always practical for use in team sport settings. Therefore, the purpose of the current study was to compare the criterion assessment of VO_2max on a treadmill to the progressive, multistage 20-m shuttle run test (i.e., Beep test), and to determine the predictability of 6 previously established Beep test predictive equations (i.e., Chatterjee, Flouris, Leger, Leger and Gadoury, Ramsbottom, St. Clair-Gibson). Collegiate women field hockey athletes (n = 65, mean±SD: age 19.6 ± 1.2 years; weight 64.7 ± 6.1 kg) completed criterion VO_2max (mean ± SD: 46.4 ± 4.6 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) and Beep tests to volitional fatigue. According to Bland–Altman and Ordinary Least Products Regressions, the Ramsbottom (46.5 ± 4.2 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) and Flouris (46.3 ± 3.8 mL·kg⁻¹·min⁻¹) equations were considered valid predictions of criterion measured VO_2max (46.4 ± 4.6). The Chatterjee, Leger, Leger and Gadoury, and St. Clair-Gibson equations overestimated VO_2max, and are not recommended for use with women collegiate field hockey athletes. The Ramsbottom and Flouris estimates of VO_2max from 20-m shuttle performances may be used in this population. For accurate estimates of VO_2max, the clientele’s age, fitness level, and training history should be considered when selecting equations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 1546 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Velocity-Based Resistance Training on 1-RM, Jump and Sprint Performance: A Systematic Review of Clinical Trials

by Mateo Baena-Marín, Andrés Rojas-Jaramillo, Jhonatan González-Santamaría, David Rodríguez-Rosell, Jorge L. Petro, Richard B. Kreider and Diego A. Bonilla

Sports 2022, 10(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports10010008 - 04 Jan 2022

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 8872

Abstract

Weight resistance training (RT) has been shown to positively influence physical performance. Within the last two decades, a methodology based on monitoring RT through movement velocity (also called velocity-based resistance training, VBRT) has emerged. The aim of this PRISMA-based systematic review was to evaluate the effect of VBRT programs on variables related to muscle strength (one-repetition maximum, 1-RM), and high-speed actions (vertical jump, and sprint performance) in trained subjects. The search for published articles was performed in PubMed/MEDLINE, SPORT Discus/EBSCO, OVID, Web of Science, Scopus, and EMBASE databases using Boolean algorithms independently. A total of 22 studies met the inclusion criteria of this systematic review (a low-to-moderate overall risk of bias of the analyzed studies was detected). VBRT is an effective method to improve 1-RM, vertical jump and sprint. According to the results of the analyzed studies, it is not necessary to reach high muscle failure in order to achieve the best training results. These findings reinforce the fact that it is possible to optimize exercise adaptations with less fatigue. Future studies should corroborate these findings in female population. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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21 pages, 732 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Training Load Monitoring Considerations for Female Gaelic Team Sports: From Theory to Practice

by John D. Duggan, Jeremy A. Moody, Paul J. Byrne, Stephen-Mark Cooper and Lisa Ryan

Sports 2021, 9(6), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060084 - 05 Jun 2021

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 7742

Abstract

Athlete monitoring enables sports science practitioners to collect information to determine how athletes respond to training loads (TL) and the demands of competition. To date, recommendations for females are often adapted from their male counterparts. There is currently limited information available on TL monitoring in female Gaelic team sports in Ireland. The collection and analysis of female athlete monitoring data can provide valuable information to support the development of female team sports. Athletic monitoring can also support practitioners to help minimize risk of excessive TL and optimize potential athletic performance. The aims of this narrative review are to provide: (i) an overview of TL athlete monitoring in female team sports, (ii) a discussion of the potential metrics and tools used to monitor external TL and internal TL, (iii) the advantages and disadvantages of TL modalities for use in Gaelic team sports, and (iv) practical considerations on how to monitor TL to aid in the determination of meaningful change with female Gaelic team sports athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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26 pages, 513 KiB

Open AccessReview

Troubleshooting a Nonresponder: Guidance for the Strength and Conditioning Coach

by Benjamin H. Gleason, William G. Hornsby, Dylan G. Suarez, Matthew A. Nein and Michael H. Stone

Sports 2021, 9(6), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9060083 - 05 Jun 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 5975

Abstract

Ideally an athlete would continue to improve performance indefinitely over time, however improvement slows as the athlete approaches their genetic limits. Measuring performance is complex—performance may be temporarily depressed following aggressive training for multiple reasons, physiological and psychosocial. This reality may be vexing to the strength and conditioning coach, who, as a service provider, must answer to sport coaches about an athlete’s progress. Recently an evaluation mechanism for strength and conditioning coaches was proposed, in part to help coaches establish their effectiveness within the organization. Without formal guidance and realistic expectations, if an athlete is not bigger, leaner, stronger, etc. as a result of training within a specified timeframe, blame is often placed upon the strength and conditioning coach. The purpose of this article is to explore possible causes of what may be perceived as athlete non-responses to training and to provide guidance for the coach on how to handle those issues within their domain. A process of investigation is recommended, along with resources to assist coaches as they consider a broad range of issues, including enhancing existing testing methods, improving athlete behaviors, and adjusting processes designed to bring about performance improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning and Performance Monitoring in Sports)

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