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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 February 2026) | Viewed by 11456

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Dr. Katarzyna Mróz

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Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Interests: civil engineering; building materials; concrete structures; concrete technology; NDT; durability; fire behaviour; fire; high temperature; concrete spalling; DIC; 3D printing; sustainability
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Prof. Dr. Izabela Hager

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Faculty of Civil Engineering, Cracow University of Technology, Warszawska 24, 31-155 Cracow, Poland
Interests: sustainability; building materials; civil engineering; concrete; concrete technology; geopolymers; durability; alternative binders; recycling; 3D printing
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The topic of “3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering” explores the innovative technology of utilizing 3D printing techniques to create concrete structures in the field of civil engineering. This advanced method allows for the rapid and efficient construction of complex architectural designs, reducing labor costs and construction time. Material testing plays a crucial role in ensuring the quality and durability of 3D-printed concrete structures, as the mechanical properties and performance characteristics of the materials used must be thoroughly assessed. Through a combination of experimental testing and theoretical analysis, researchers aim to optimize the printing process and develop new sustainable materials for use in civil engineering projects. This topic represents a significant advancement in construction technology, offering new possibilities for designing and building structures with improved efficiency and sustainability.

Dr. Katarzyna Mróz
Prof. Dr. Izabela Hager
Guest Editors

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Keywords

3D printing
concrete
building
civil engineering
material testing
sustainable construction
construction materials

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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17 pages, 2682 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Cone-Penetration Test as a Rheology Quality-Control Field-Oriented Test for 3D Printing Cement-Based Systems

by Enrique Gomez, Hugo Varela and Gonzalo Barluenga

Materials 2026, 19(5), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19051029 - 7 Mar 2026

Viewed by 244

Abstract

3D printing (3DP) of cement-based systems (CBSs) is a highly demanded technology in the construction field. Material requirements include specific rheological conditions for proper extrusion, followed by fast stiffening and strength gain to allow the construction process to continue, taking into account variable environmental conditions if the construction is on-site. To guarantee quality control of the process, it is essential to define field-oriented testing methodologies that allow real-time monitoring of mechanical properties’ evolution of the printed material, which will govern construction speed. This study evaluates the cone penetration test (CPT) method as a field-oriented test method to estimate the mechanical properties of 3DP CBSs over time. CPT penetration depth measurements were used to calculate shear yield stress and fresh compressive strength over time for 90 min. The experimental results were compared to two widely used laboratory tests: the fresh compressive strength test (squeeze test—SQT) and DSR test (vane test—VT). CBS pastes with and without fly ash and with three inorganic modifiers (nanoclays) and two types of organic rheology-modifying admixtures were considered. The results showed that CPT is highly conditioned by the stiffness of the paste, measured by the compressive Young Modulus (E), overestimating CBSs’ strength. The increase in E over time showed an inflection point at 130 kPa, corresponding to the evolution from plastic to pseudo-rigid behavior in the pastes. The corresponding time was used to define a linear adjustment for the average strength calculated using the CPT regarding both the fresh compressive SQT and shear yield stress VT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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16 pages, 4703 KB

Open AccessArticle

Methodology for Integrating Mineral-Impregnated Carbon Fibers as Reinforcement in Fine Filament 3D Concrete Printing

by Tobias Neef, Marko Butler and Viktor Mechtcherine

Materials 2026, 19(4), 786; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19040786 - 18 Feb 2026

Viewed by 311

Abstract

Mineral-impregnated carbon fibers (MCF) represent an advanced non-metallic reinforcement material offering high structural efficiency in concrete elements. Carbon fibers are impregnated with a suspension of ultrafine cement and microsilica and processed into rovings, providing high strength, design flexibility, and excellent bonding to concrete. In their freshly impregnated state, MCF exhibit high flexibility and can be deposited in any geometries, making them particularly suitable for complex structures manufactured using innovative processes such as 3D concrete printing (3DCP). Despite many advancements in reinforcement strategies for 3DCP, there is a lack of a simultaneous continuous corrosion-resistant reinforcement strategy. This is to be achieved by directly integrating freshly manufactured, still flexible MCF as longitudinal reinforcement of extruded concrete strands. Various modifications in MCF processing and print head modification are being investigated. This study highlights the potential of freshly impregnated MCF to improve structural continuity and automation due to their high flexibility. After modification, initial mechanical tests are carried out on printed MCF-reinforced concrete strands in comparison to cast speciments. These results are discussed and supplemented by visual findings from computer tomography. Although the mechanical performance of the printed specimens remains inferior to that of the cast specimens, as confirmed by CT analyses, the results demonstrate the feasibility of an effective method for simultaneous and continuous reinforcement of concrete during the 3D printing process. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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16 pages, 2234 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating 3D-Printed ABS and Carbon Fiber as Sustainable Alternatives to Steel in Concrete Structures

by Juan José Soto-Bernal, Ma. Rosario González-Mota, Judith Marlene Merida-Cabrera, Iliana Rosales-Candelas and José Ángel Ortiz-Lozano

Materials 2026, 19(2), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19020393 - 19 Jan 2026

Viewed by 395

Abstract

This study evaluates the potential of 3D-printed acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and carbon fiber (CF) as sustainable alternatives to steel reinforcement in cement-based materials. The experimental program analyzed the compressive strength of cement pastes and concrete cylinders incorporating 3D-printed ABS and CF elements. Unreinforced cement pastes exhibited higher compressive strength than reinforced pastes, indicating limited reinforcement–matrix interaction. In concrete cylinders, ABS reinforcement increased compressive strength by approximately 3 to 7 MPa compared to steel, whereas CF reinforcement showed variable performance and did not consistently surpass the control specimens. ANOVA and Tukey tests confirmed the statistical significance of the results. The anisotropic response of ABS and CF, inherent to layer-by-layer deposition, was identified as a major factor influencing structural performance, particularly with respect to reinforcement orientation. The results indicate that ABS presents potential as an environmentally favourable alternative to steel in selected applications, while CF requires further optimization for compression-oriented use. Continued research is recommended to evaluate long-term durability, environmental resistance, and reinforcement–matrix compatibility in order to advance the implementation of polymer-based, additively manufactured reinforcements in construction materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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13 pages, 3464 KB

Open AccessCommunication

Additive Manufacturing of Steel-Reinforced Concrete by Combination of Selective Paste Intrusion and Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing: Impact of Heat Generated by WAAM on Bond Behavior of the Reinforcement

by Alexander Straßer, Felix Riegger, Thomas Kränkel and Christoph Gehlen

Materials 2025, 18(23), 5455; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235455 - 3 Dec 2025

Viewed by 569

Abstract

Integrating Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) into the Selective Paste Intrusion (SPI) process represents a groundbreaking approach for fabricating reinforced concrete structures with complex geometries. This study investigates the bond strength between concrete and WAAM reinforcement under varying temperature conditions to understand the behavior of heated reinforcement bars within fresh concrete and its effect on the related bond strength. By conducting pull-out tests according to RILEM RC6, WAAM reinforcement bars were heated to predefined temperatures of 20 °C (ambient), 60 °C, 80 °C, and 200 °C for 18 min. The results show that while moderate thermal exposure (60 °C and 80 °C) led to a slight reduction in the maximum bond strength, a notable degradation occurred at 200 °C, indicated by a marked decrease in both maximum bond stress and early bond development. These findings provide initial insights into the thermal limitations of WAAM integration within SPI processes. The goal is to address the challenges associated with integrating WAAM into SPI, particularly the adverse effects of high temperatures generated during the welding process on the rheological properties of the cement paste, the penetration behavior of the paste in the particle bed, and ultimately, the mechanical properties of the hardened concrete. This technique allows for producing nearly free-formed reinforcements, thus complementing the advantage of SPI in producing free-formed structures of almost any geometry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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32 pages, 8920 KB

Open AccessArticle

Aerodynamic Testing of a 3D-Printed Aircraft Model with a Post-Processed Surface

by Lucjan Setlak, Rafał Kowalik and Tomasz Lusiak

Materials 2025, 18(17), 3996; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18173996 - 26 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1252

Abstract

The subject of the research in this article were experimental tests of the M-346 Master aircraft model, carried out in a wind tunnel using the 3D printing method (FDM) in terms of the impact of surface post-processing technology on its aerodynamic characteristics. The measurements of key aerodynamic parameters concerned forces and moments in various airflow conditions taking into account variable angles of attack at a constant sideslip angle. The main purpose of the work was to verify the hypothesis that properly performed surface treatment significantly affects the accuracy of actual aerodynamic measurements in terms of solving the research problem using the post-processing technology, to conduct selected tests in a wind tunnel and analyze the obtained results. The obtained results of the tests, which showed a significant impact of the technological parameters of 3D printing and surface treatment methods on the correctness of the representation of real aerodynamic characteristics, were used mainly to analyze the aerodynamic performance of the model, verify the distribution of forces and moments, and evaluate the behavior of the structure in various flight scenarios. The obtained research results, the analysis of the obtained results, and selected tests were used to present important observations and formulate practical conclusions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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25 pages, 7740 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anisotropy of Mechanical Properties of 3D-Printed Materials—Influence of Application Time of Subsequent Layers

by Marcin Maroszek, Izabela Hager, Katarzyna Mróz, Mateusz Sitarz and Marek Hebda

Materials 2025, 18(16), 3845; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18163845 - 15 Aug 2025

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3869

Abstract

Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP) is an emerging additive manufacturing technology with increasing application potential in the construction industry, offering advantages such as reduced labor requirements, shortened construction time, and material efficiency. However, structural integrity remains a challenge, particularly due to weak interlayer bonding resulting from the layered manufacturing process. This study investigates the mechanical performance and anisotropy of 3D-printed mineral-based composites with respect to the time interval between successive layers. Specimens were printed with varying interlayer intervals (0, 25, and 50 min) and tested in different loading directions. Flexural, compressive, and tensile strengths (direct and splitting methods) were measured both parallel and perpendicular to the layer orientation. Results showed a clear degradation in mechanical properties with increasing interlayer time, particularly in the direction perpendicular to the layers. Flexural strength decreased by over 25% and direct tensile strength by up to 40% with a 25 min interval. Compressive strength also declined, though less dramatically. Compared to cast specimens, printed elements showed 3–4 times lower compressive strength, highlighting the significant impact of interlayer cohesion. This study confirms that both the time between layers and the loading direction strongly influence mechanical behavior, underlining the anisotropic nature of 3DCP elements and the need for process optimization to ensure structural reliability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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13 pages, 3335 KB

Open AccessArticle

Metallization of 3D-Printed PET and PETG Samples with Different Filling Densities of the Inner Layers

by Sonya Petrova, Diana Lazarova, Mihaela Georgieva, Maria Petrova, Dimiter Dobrev and Dimitre Ditchev

Materials 2025, 18(14), 3401; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18143401 - 20 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1134

Abstract

The aim of the study was to develop a suitable pre-treatment (and more specifically, the etching operation) of 3D-printed PET and PETG samples with different filling densities of the inner layers for subsequent electroless metallization. The influence of temperature, etching time, and sodium hydroxide concentration in the etching solution on the deposition rate, adhesion, and composition of Ni-P coatings was determined. The studies show that a high temperature and concentration of the etching solution do not improve the properties of the coating. The etching not only plays an important role in improving adhesion but also affects the composition and thickness of the nickel layer. It was also established how the degree of filling densities of the inner layers affects the uniformity, penetration depth, and thickness of electrolessly deposited Cu and Ni-P coatings on 3D PETG samples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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27 pages, 15704 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Mechanical Properties of Composite Basalt Fiber 3D-Printed Concrete Based on 3D Meso-Structure

by Shengxuan Ding, Jiren Li and Mingqiang Wang

Materials 2025, 18(14), 3379; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18143379 - 18 Jul 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1972

Abstract

As 3D concrete printing emerges as a transformative construction method, its structural safety remains hindered by unresolved issues of mechanical anisotropy and interlayer defects. To address this, we systematically investigate the failure mechanisms and mechanical performance of basalt fiber-reinforced 3D-printed magnesite concrete. A total of 30 cube specimens (50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm)—comprising three types (Corner, Stripe, and R-a-p)—were fabricated and tested under compressive and splitting tensile loading along three orthogonal directions using a 2000 kN electro-hydraulic testing machine. The results indicate that 3D-printed concrete exhibits significantly lower strength than cast-in-place concrete, which is attributed to weak interfacial bonds and interlayer pores. Notably, the R-a-p specimen’s Z-direction compressive strength is 38.7% lower than its Y-direction counterpart. To complement the mechanical tests, DIC, CT scanning, and SEM analyses were conducted to explore crack development, internal defect morphology, and microstructure. A finite element model based on the experimental data successfully reproduced the observed failure processes. This study not only enhances our understanding of anisotropic behavior in 3D-printed concrete but also offers practical insights for print-path optimization and sustainable structural design. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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Review

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25 pages, 2414 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of Material Processing Technology for 3D Concrete Printing

by Adam Hutyra, Marcin Maroszek, Magdalena Rudziewicz, Michał Góra and Bożena Tyliszczak

Materials 2026, 19(3), 564; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19030564 - 31 Jan 2026

Viewed by 490

Abstract

Concrete 3D printing (3DCP) combines materials science with material processing technologies to enable automated, additive construction. This review summarizes findings from the literature and industrial practice on 3DCP mortar formulation with emphasis on the material processing chain. The workflow is examined from raw material storage through handling, mixing, and deposition. The roles of binders, aggregates, dispersed reinforcement, and chemical admixtures are discussed in relation to rheological behavior, buildability, and early-age mechanical performance. The analysis covers storage, dosing, and mixing strategies with respect to mix consistency and overall process reliability, while mortar pumping and extrusion are addressed alongside nozzle-injected additives and automation. Finally, limitations and scalability challenges are outlined with research directions such as continuous mixing, in-line monitoring, and adaptive mix formulation for on-site applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Materials in Civil Engineering)

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