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Diversity
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Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition
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Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition

A special issue of Diversity (ISSN 1424-2818). This special issue belongs to the section "Biodiversity Conservation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 July 2024) | Viewed by 11094

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Michelle Henley

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
1. Applied Behavioural Ecology and Ecosystem Research Unit, School of Environmental Sciences, University of South Africa, Private Bag X5, Florida 1710, South Africa
2. Elephants Alive, P.O. Box 960, Hoedspruit 1380, South Africa
Interests: ecology; human-elephant conflict; elephant behaviour
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We are pleased to announce a forthcoming Special Issue of Diversity, focussing on existing human-elephant conflict (HEC), considering how we can work toward human–elephant coexistence by sharing research ideas and plans both within the African and Asian context.

African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants are both considered keystone species within their environments, as well as significant tourist attractions. However, elephants have undergone dramatic population size reductions of over 50% within the past three generations, being listed as endangered according to the IUCN Red Data List, with some species listed as critically endangered. Land conversion, because of growing human populations, has increasingly fragmented both the African and Asian elephant populations, decreasing the space available to elephants and the connectivity between Protected Areas (PAs). This fragmentation has led to increased levels of HEC, ranging from mild forms of conflict over elephant impact on their natural environment to more severe forms where both human and elephant lives have been lost.

The responsibility of managing HEC where people and elephants share the landscape within PAs is placed on reserve managers. Outside of PAs, governments are often tasked with ensuring human safety, frequently in poverty-stricken regions where elephants and people are in direct competition for limited resources. Research into HEC has thus been fundamental for establishing management solutions. Research topics within this field have varied from, among others, factors driving HEC, the socio-economic repercussions of HEC, the formation of policies around HEC, the philosophy around HEC, as well as strategies aimed at decreasing HEC and promoting coexistence. As research and mitigation strategies within the HEC field are continually evolving, the importance of sharing research results and management implications, both on intra- and intercontinental levels, is imperative for the long-term conservation of African and Asian elephants.

This Special Issue of Diversity provides an opportunity to combine and synthesize global developments concerning HEC research across the African and Asian continents. We kindly invite you to submit a manuscript, focused on any of the above topics, as well as study case scenarios and reviews within the broad topic. If you are interested in this opportunity or have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact us.

Dr. Michelle Henley
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Diversity is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • human–elephant conflict
  • human–elephant co-existence
  • elephant mitigation strategies
  • elephant corridors
  • community engagement
  • collaring elephants
  • crop raiding
  • tracking technology
  • transfrontier conservation
  • land-use planning

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Published Papers (6 papers)

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Research

24 pages, 4256 KiB  
Article
The Role of Alternative Crop Cultivation in Promoting Human-Elephant Coexistence: A Multidisciplinary Investigation in Thailand
by Ave Owen, Antoinette van de Water, Natsuda Sutthiboriban, Naruemon Tantipisanuh, Samorn Sangthong, Alisha Rajbhandari and Kevin Matteson
Diversity 2024, 16(9), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/d16090519 - 29 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1025
Abstract
In areas of high human-elephant conflict, cultivating crops that are less attractive to elephants can be a viable strategy for coexistence. Farmers in these regions often grow crops like pineapple, which are palatable to elephants and attract them into human-dominated landscapes. This study, [...] Read more.
In areas of high human-elephant conflict, cultivating crops that are less attractive to elephants can be a viable strategy for coexistence. Farmers in these regions often grow crops like pineapple, which are palatable to elephants and attract them into human-dominated landscapes. This study, conducted in Ruam Thai Village, adjacent to Kuiburi National Park in Thailand, evaluated the socio-economic factors affecting farmers’ interest in alternative crop cultivation and assessed the impact of elephants and environmental threats on plots containing pineapple and alternative crops. Our findings revealed that 70% of households (N = 239) rely on pineapple cultivation as their primary source of income. However, 49% of interviewed pineapple farmers reported that their cultivation was not profitable, largely owing to the high costs of agro-chemical inputs. The majority (91%) of farmers experienced negative consequences from living near wild elephants, and 50% expressed interest in cultivating alternative crops. Farmers who frequently experienced elephant visits, felt they could coexist with elephants, and perceived both positive and negative consequences from them were more likely to be interested in alternative crop cultivation. Elephants eliminated over 80% of the pineapple but less than 6% of any alternative crop species across all test plots. Using a crop scoring system based on ecological, economic, and social factors, we identified lemongrass and citronella as the most suitable alternative crop species for the study site. This multidisciplinary study highlights interventions needed to reduce barriers and increase motivators for local farmers to adopt elephant-friendly agriculture as a sustainable human–elephant coexistence strategy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
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14 pages, 1911 KiB  
Article
A Snapshot into the Lives of Elephants: Camera Traps and Conservation in Etosha National Park, Namibia
by Jodie L. Berezin, Amanda J. Odom, Virginia Hayssen and Caitlin E. O’Connell-Rodwell
Diversity 2023, 15(11), 1146; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15111146 - 17 Nov 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1379
Abstract
Knowledge of elephant movement and grouping patterns in the wild is critical for their management and conservation. Much of these data come from GPS collar data and aerial surveys, which have provided invaluable information, but data from these methods are often limited to [...] Read more.
Knowledge of elephant movement and grouping patterns in the wild is critical for their management and conservation. Much of these data come from GPS collar data and aerial surveys, which have provided invaluable information, but data from these methods are often limited to small groups or entire populations. Effective elephant management requires both generalized and localized methodologies. Here, we propose the expanded use of camera traps in research relating to elephant localized movements and grouping patterns as an additional tool for elephant conservation management. In this study, we use a battery-powered camera trap to provide daily high-resolution data of African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana) grouping patterns over the course of an entire year. We present findings on the seasonal and diurnal grouping patterns of elephants at a waterhole in the northeast corner of Etosha National Park from July 2016 to June 2017. The frequency of elephant occurrences varied seasonally and diurnally across all group types (solitary male, male, family, and mixed groups), while group sizes did not vary seasonally, except for male groups. Solitary males occurred relatively equally throughout the day, while male and mixed groups occurred the most midday, and family groups occurred the most in the afternoon. Additionally, we measured the reliability of research assistants when collecting group type and group size data from the camera trap images. Intra- and inter-observer reliability was excellent among and across research assistants, highlighting the potential for non-specialist observers to have greater involvement in camera trap data collection. Our results support the use of camera trap data where GPS collars and aerial surveys are not feasible and where higher-resolution data are needed for more localized management. Finally, we discuss our experience with two different types of camera traps to highlight the pros and cons of each approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
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6 pages, 212 KiB  
Communication
Evaluating Formic Acid as a Behavioral Modifier in African Savanna Elephants
by Mark G. Wright, Irene Gatti, Michelle G. Au, Juliana Salehi, Craig R. Spencer, Paul Allin and Agenor Mafra-Neto
Diversity 2023, 15(10), 1079; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15101079 - 12 Oct 2023
Viewed by 1254
Abstract
Formic acid was investigated as a potential repellant for African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) as a semiochemical option for managing elephant movements and interactions with human infrastructure. Formic acid is a naturally occurring compound, used as an alarm pheromone and as [...] Read more.
Formic acid was investigated as a potential repellant for African savanna elephants (Loxodonta africana) as a semiochemical option for managing elephant movements and interactions with human infrastructure. Formic acid is a naturally occurring compound, used as an alarm pheromone and as a defensive chemical in Formicine ants, and thus a potentially desirable option compared to introducing exogenous deterrents that are foreign to the elephants’ natural habitats. Although most elephants observed (85%) did not interact with treatments containing formic acid, of the cohort of individuals (n = 38) that did respond, the majority showed a mild to moderate avoidance response, while a small proportion of elephants were distinctly repelled when experiencing formic acid cues, in some cases causing whole herds to evacuate an area. The potential for using formic acid as an elephant repellant to modulate elephant behavior in field situations is discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
26 pages, 3339 KiB  
Article
Resolving Conservation Conflicts through Shared Vision, Collective Benefits and Relevant Values
by Antoinette van de Water, Suzan Doornwaard, Liesbeth Sluiter, Michelle Henley, Catherine Sutherland and Rob Slotow
Diversity 2023, 15(10), 1041; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15101041 - 27 Sep 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2550
Abstract
The global challenges of biodiversity loss and persistent poverty and inequality, which interact and shape each other at the local scale, require new strategies to improve human well-being and conserve biodiversity. In South Africa, inclusive and transformative conservation approaches are gaining support, which [...] Read more.
The global challenges of biodiversity loss and persistent poverty and inequality, which interact and shape each other at the local scale, require new strategies to improve human well-being and conserve biodiversity. In South Africa, inclusive and transformative conservation approaches are gaining support, which is of particular importance given the challenging history of conservation during the colonial and apartheid eras. The Dinokeng Game Reserve was created to conserve biodiversity and combat poverty in adjacent communities. However, human–elephant conflict and community development challenges have led to unproductive conservation trade-offs. We developed a Theory of Change for Living in Harmony that can help policymakers, conservation organisations and local communities to find better solutions. To develop the Theory of Change, we assessed the visions and perspectives towards (elephant) conservation and socio-economic development among both people living inside (owners/direct beneficiaries) and outside (community/indirect beneficiaries) the reserve. The study revealed common ground among stakeholder groups in ranking elephant benefits, as well as a collective acknowledgement of the importance of moral values in conservation decision making. However, the benefits of living within or adjacent to an elephant reserve differed considerably across stakeholder groups. Accordingly, different but not mutually exclusive solutions were suggested, including investments in multi-level good governance, education and capacity building, active community engagement and development, reserve expansion, and promoting the reserve’s integrated conservation model. This Theory of Change aims to support common ground between stakeholders, with critical feedback loops that reduce barriers and enable conditions for coexistence. It promotes conservation strategies that are socially relevant and widely supported, can create mutually beneficial outcomes for elephants, biodiversity, and multiple stakeholders, and can be applied to other species or ecosystems in general, with specific elements being tailored to those circumstances. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
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20 pages, 2043 KiB  
Article
Probing the Complexities of Actual and Perceived Levels of Human-Elephant Conflict in the Okavango, Botswana
by Anna Songhurst
Diversity 2023, 15(8), 890; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15080890 - 28 Jul 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1611
Abstract
People’s perception of the conflict they are experiencing with wildlife is a major factor in determining the extent of human-elephant conflict (HEC) occurring and needs to be considered when devising HEC management strategies. To understand perceptions and attitudes, however, it is necessary to [...] Read more.
People’s perception of the conflict they are experiencing with wildlife is a major factor in determining the extent of human-elephant conflict (HEC) occurring and needs to be considered when devising HEC management strategies. To understand perceptions and attitudes, however, it is necessary to identify factors that influence them. This study used a combination of multivariate ordered probit and generalized linear models to probe the complexities of farmer perception and attitudes and reveal underlying influential factors that shape perceived conflict levels. The study shows that the perception of HEC is complicated, influenced by an array of factors, both directly and indirectly, many of which are socio-demographic characteristics of the farmer, rather than quantifiable indicators of actual conflict. It was found that perceived human-elephant conflict (HEC) in the Okavango is affected by the ethnicity of the farmer, the raiding history of a field, the distance of fields to elephant pathways, and a farmer’s feeling towards elephants. Yet, feelings towards elephants are affected by attitudes towards wildlife, which are influenced by the benefits communities receive from living near wildlife. The perceived conflict levels of respondents were higher than the predicted actual conflict levels. Such discrepancies could be interpreted as “people over-reporting the scale of the problem”, yet results indicate that the crop-raiding history of a farmer alone is not adequate to assess the overall level of conflict being experienced because other social and environmental factors are involved in determining farmer perception of conflict. A holistic approach is needed to address the complexities of perceived and actual conflicts to ultimately reduce HEC. This involves targeting mitigation strategies for specific groups of people, considering elephant pathways and field locations in land use planning, and finding ways to improve benefits accrued to the community through wildlife-related enterprises that bring benefits back from living with elephants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
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13 pages, 1490 KiB  
Article
A Study on the Perception of African Elephant (Loxodonta africana) Conservation by School Children in Africa and England (UK)
by Katie E. Thompson and Genoveva F. Esteban
Diversity 2023, 15(6), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/d15060781 - 16 Jun 2023
Viewed by 2092
Abstract
Environmental education (EE) applications can support wildlife conservation practices by improving school children’s understanding of environmental issues, including endangered species conservation, such as the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana). This study aimed to identify and assess school children’s perceptions of elephant conservation [...] Read more.
Environmental education (EE) applications can support wildlife conservation practices by improving school children’s understanding of environmental issues, including endangered species conservation, such as the African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana). This study aimed to identify and assess school children’s perceptions of elephant conservation in three schools: South Africa, Kenya, and England. Questionnaires were completed by students at one school per location, with the age range of 10–16 (n = 364). The responses were then analysed independently and collectively using descriptive statistics (n = 364). School children feared elephants where elephants were native. The importance of elephants was not acknowledged by students in South Africa and England and included a lack of awareness of how elephants benefit other species. There was an unclear understanding of the threats to elephants. Collectively, a wildlife guide as a career choice was not highly valued. The results of this study have reflected key narratives of elephant conservation from selected countries; Kenya leading in anti-poaching and anti-trade campaigns, anti-poaching campaigns by various NGOs in the U.K., and elephant management around expanding populations in South Africa, which have given significant insights into areas of improvement for environmental education practices to support wildlife conservation globally. Furthermore, this new research has identified and compared school children’s awareness of elephant conservation on a greater spatial scale than what is currently understood, compounding the importance of understanding effective wildlife conservation in education. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Elephants: Moving from Conflict to Coexistence with People-2nd Edition)
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