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21 pages, 19895 KB

Open AccessArticle

Polymer-BN Composites as Thermal Interface Materials for Lithium-Ion Battery Modules: Experimental and Simulation Insights

by Sajib Kumar Mohonta, Shinto Mundackal Francis, Andrew Ferebee, Gajendra Bohara, Pooja Puneet, Yi Ding and Ramakrishna Podila

Batteries 2025, 11(12), 431; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11120431 - 22 Nov 2025

Viewed by 689

Abstract

Efficient thermal management is critical for the safety and performance of lithium-ion battery (LIB) systems, particularly under high C-rate charge–discharge cycling. Here, we investigate two classes of polymer composite thermal interface materials (TIMs): graphene-PLA (GPLA) fabricated via 3D printing and boron nitride nanoplatelets [...] Read more.

Efficient thermal management is critical for the safety and performance of lithium-ion battery (LIB) systems, particularly under high C-rate charge–discharge cycling. Here, we investigate two classes of polymer composite thermal interface materials (TIMs): graphene-PLA (GPLA) fabricated via 3D printing and boron nitride nanoplatelets (BN)-loaded thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) composites with 20 and 40 wt.% BN content. To understand cooling dynamics, we developed a simple analytical model based on Newtonian heat conduction, predicting an inverse relationship between the cooling rate and the TIM thermal diffusivity. We validated this model experimentally using a six-cell LIB module equipped with active liquid cooling, and complemented it with finite-element simulations in COMSOL Multiphysics incorporating experimentally derived parameters. Across all approaches, analytical, numerical, and experimental, we observed excellent agreement in predicting the temperature decay profiles and inter-cell temperature differentials (

Δ T

). Charge–discharge cycling studies at varying C-rates demonstrated that high-diffusivity TIMs enable faster cooling but require careful design to minimize lateral thermal gradients. Our results establish that an ideal TIM must simultaneously support rapid vertical heat sinking and effective lateral thermal diffusion to ensure thermal uniformity. Among the studied materials, the 40% BN–60% TPU composite achieved the best overall performance, highlighting the potential of BN filler-engineered polymer composites for scalable thermal management in next-generation battery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 2299 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal System Simulation of Heating Strategies for 21700 Lithium-Ion Battery Modules Under Cold-Start Conditions

by Grace Parra-Panchi, Hanieh Nasrollahzadeh, Xiao-Yu Wu, Michael Fowler and Yverick Rangom

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 425; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110425 - 19 Nov 2025

Viewed by 700

Abstract

Rapid heating strategies are essential for the cold-start of lithium-ion batteries at subzero temperatures to avoid severe performance losses. This study explores different external and battery-powered heating strategies and evaluates the time required for 21700 lithium-ion battery modules to reach the minimum safe-operating [...] Read more.

Rapid heating strategies are essential for the cold-start of lithium-ion batteries at subzero temperatures to avoid severe performance losses. This study explores different external and battery-powered heating strategies and evaluates the time required for 21700 lithium-ion battery modules to reach the minimum safe-operating temperature. Three heating strategies were simulated: battery discharge, external heating, and combined configurations at ambient temperatures of −20 to 0 °C with initial state of charges (SOCs) of 20–80%. Results show that with discharge-only heating, the module heated up slowly and was unable to completely discharge at −20 °C and 20% SOC. Yet when the external surface-heating strategy was applied, the module was heated up 75–86% faster to reach the safe-operating temperature, which allowed the module to discharge completely under all conditions. Furthermore, in a combined configuration strategy where the external surface-heating is applied while the module discharges, the module achieved an additional 7–21% faster temperature rise. Lastly, at −20 °C and 20% SOC, external heater energy exceeded the module’s usable output, while at 0 °C and moderate SOC, heater demand was only 2–3% of available battery capacity. Overall, findings show combining external heating discharge enables a reliable cold-start for the battery modules studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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33 pages, 10086 KB

Open AccessArticle

Water-Immersion Cooling for Lithium-Ion Battery Thermal Management: A Systematic Experimental and Numerical Study

by Xiahua Zuo, Peng Peng, Yiwei Wang, Wenling Li, Wanyi Wu, Yishu Qiu and Fangming Jiang

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 416; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110416 - 13 Nov 2025

Viewed by 531

Abstract

In recent years, immersion cooling has gained wide interest for thermal management of lithium-ion batteries. Usually, dielectric oils or fluorinated liquid are used as immersion coolants to avert short circuits, but they have low thermal conductivity and high cost. Although water offers superior [...] Read more.

In recent years, immersion cooling has gained wide interest for thermal management of lithium-ion batteries. Usually, dielectric oils or fluorinated liquid are used as immersion coolants to avert short circuits, but they have low thermal conductivity and high cost. Although water offers superior heat-transfer performance, its poor dielectric property means it cannot be used directly as an immersion coolant. Near full-depth partial immersion (NFDPI) was proposed as a viable alternative, in which water does not contact the tabs of batteries. In this study, an NFDPI experimental system is set up, and the effects of coolant flow rate, discharge rate, and inlet–outlet configuration on thermal management performance are investigated. Since direct observation of the immersion tank’s internal flow is challenging, numerical simulations are conducted to resolve the flow field under various operating conditions. The experimental and simulated results reveal that NFDPI cooling effectively limits the module’s maximum temperature, and the module’s maximum temperature spread is mainly attributed to the cell’s vertical temperature gradient. These findings offer guidance for the practical deployment of water-based NFDPI lithium-ion battery energy storage systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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28 pages, 13606 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Objective Topology Optimization of the Cooling Plate for Battery Thermal Management

by Tianshuo Yang, Huaqiang Liu, Wenjie Zhang, Aoshuang Ding and Mengke Wu

Batteries 2025, 11(11), 406; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11110406 - 4 Nov 2025

Viewed by 669

Abstract

The lifespan and performance of power batteries used in electric vehicles and ships are highly sensitive to the operating temperatures, demonstrating the indispensable role of an effective thermal management system. Topology optimization is a method that can achieve comprehensive optimization of thermal and [...] Read more.

The lifespan and performance of power batteries used in electric vehicles and ships are highly sensitive to the operating temperatures, demonstrating the indispensable role of an effective thermal management system. Topology optimization is a method that can achieve comprehensive optimization of thermal and flow performance. The inlet/outlet layout is an important parameter affecting the thermal management performance of topology-optimized channels. To optimize the inlet/outlet positions, this study establishes the relationship between inlet/outlet positions and evaluation indicators using the response surface method, and further obtains the optimal solution based on the NSGA II and TOPSIS algorithms. The results show that the topology-optimized liquid cooling plate with optimal inlet/outlet position (TOPO) presents a lower maximum temperature under different inlet velocities than the counterparts with the conventional inlet/outlet layout (0.13–0.22 K), straight channel with the optimal inlet/outlet position (0.89–1.03 K), and single inlet/outlet straight channel (1.8–2.6 K). Moreover, the comprehensive performance of the proposed TOPO is more pronounced at high inlet velocity conditions. When the inlet velocity is 0.13 m/s, compared with the other counterparts, the performance evaluation criterion of TOPO increases by 16.6%, 28.7%, and 79.4%, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 8711 KB

Open AccessArticle

Intrinsic Thermal Stability of Li-Rich Mn-Based Cathodes Enabling Safe High-Energy Lithium-Ion Batteries

by Zhaoqiang Pei, Shaobo Feng, Zhibo Han, Zihua Wang, Chengshan Xu, Xiangming He, Li Wang, Yu Wang and Xuning Feng

Batteries 2025, 11(8), 311; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11080311 - 15 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2039

Abstract

Lithium-rich manganese-based oxides (LMR) are promising next-generation cathode materials due to their high capacity and low cost, but safety remains a critical bottleneck restricting the practical application of high-energy-density cathodes. However, the safety level of LMR batteries and the thermal failure mechanism of [...] Read more.

Lithium-rich manganese-based oxides (LMR) are promising next-generation cathode materials due to their high capacity and low cost, but safety remains a critical bottleneck restricting the practical application of high-energy-density cathodes. However, the safety level of LMR batteries and the thermal failure mechanism of the cathode are still poorly understood, especially when compared with traditional high-energy nickel-rich (Ni-rich) cathodes. Here, we investigate the LMR cell’s thermal runaway behavior and the thermal failure mechanism of the cathode. Compared to a Ni-rich cell, Accelerating Rate Calorimetry (ARC) shows the LMR pouch cell exhibits a 62.7 °C higher thermal runaway trigger temperature (T2) and 270.3 °C lower maximum temperature (T3). These results indicate that the cell utilizing a higher-energy-density LMR cathode presents significantly lower thermal runaway risks and hazards. The results of differential scanning calorimetry–thermogravimetry–mass spectrometry (DSC-TG-MS) and in situ heating X-ray diffraction (XRD) indicate that the LMR cathode has superior thermal stability compared with the Ni-rich cathode, with cathode oxygen released at higher temperatures and lower rates, which is beneficial for delaying and mitigating the exothermic reaction inside the battery. This study demonstrates that simultaneously enhancing cathode energy density and battery safety is achievable, and these findings provide theoretical guidance for the design of next-generation high-energy and high-safety battery systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 2182 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating the Thermal Runaway Characteristics of the Prismatic Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery Under a Coupled Charge Rate and Ambient Temperature

by Jikai Tian, Zhenxiong Wang, Lingrui Kong, Fengyang Xu, Xin Dong and Jun Shen

Batteries 2025, 11(7), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11070253 - 4 Jul 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3658

Abstract

Optimizing the charging rate is crucial for enhancing lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery performance. The substantial heat generation during high C-rate charging poses a significant risk of thermal runaway, necessitating advanced thermal management strategies. This study systematically investigates the coupling mechanism between charging [...] Read more.

Optimizing the charging rate is crucial for enhancing lithium iron phosphate (LFP) battery performance. The substantial heat generation during high C-rate charging poses a significant risk of thermal runaway, necessitating advanced thermal management strategies. This study systematically investigates the coupling mechanism between charging rates and ambient temperatures in overcharge-induced thermal runaway, filling the knowledge gaps associated with multi-indicator thermal management approaches. Through experiments on prismatic LFP cells across five operational conditions (1C/35 °C, 1.5C/5 °C, 1.5C/15 °C, 1.5C/25 °C, and 1.5C/35 °C), synchronized infrared thermography and electrochemical monitoring quantitatively characterize the thermal–electric coupling dynamics throughout overcharge-to-runaway transitions. The experimental findings reveal three key observations: (1) Charge rate and temperature have synergistic amplification effects on triggering thermal runaway. (2) Contrary to intuition, while low-current/high-temperature charging enhances safety versus high-current/high-temperature conditions, low-temperature/high-current charging triggers thermal runaway faster than high-temperature/high-current scenarios. (3) Staged multi-indicator lithium battery thermal runaway warning signals would be more accurate (first peaks > 0.5 °C/s temperature rise rate + >10 V/s voltage drop rate). These findings collectively demonstrate the imperative for next-generation battery management systems integrating real-time ambient temperature compensation with adaptive C-rate control, fundamentally advancing beyond conventional single-variable thermal regulation strategies. Intelligent adaptation is critical for mitigating thermal runaway risks in LFP battery operations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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27 pages, 15381 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design Optimization of Bionic Liquid Cooling Plate Based on PSO-BP Neural Network Surrogate Model and Multi-Objective Genetic Algorithm

by Jiaming Liu, Wenlin Yuan, Yapeng Zhou and Hengyun Zhang

Batteries 2025, 11(4), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11040141 - 5 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1472

Abstract

In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity [...] Read more.

In this study, the particle swarm optimization (PSO) and back propagation neural network (BPNN) surrogate model in combination with a multi-objective genetic algorithm are developed for the design optimization of a bionic liquid cooling plate with a spider-web channel structure. The single-factor sensitivity analysis is first conducted based on the numerical simulation approach, identifying three key factors as design variables for optimizing design objectives such as maximum temperature (T_max), maximum temperature difference (ΔT_max), and pressure drop (ΔP). Subsequently, the PSO algorithm is used to optimize the parameters of the BPNN structure, thereby constructing the PSO-BPNN surrogate model. Next, the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II (NSGA-II) is employed to obtain the Pareto optimal set, and the TOPSIS with the entropy weight method is used to determine the optimal solution, eliminating subjective preferences in decision-making. The results show that the PSO-BPNN model outperforms the traditional BPNN in prediction accuracy for all three objectives. Compared to the initial structure, the T_max and ΔT_max are reduced by 1.09 °C and 0.41 °C in the optimized structure, respectively, with an increase in ΔP by 21.24 Pa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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18 pages, 5104 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Investigation of Phase Change Material-Based Battery Pack Performance Under Elevated Ambient Temperature

by Mohammad J. Ganji, Martin Agelin-Chaab and Marc A. Rosen

Batteries 2025, 11(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/batteries11020067 - 8 Feb 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 5223

Abstract

This study experimentally assesses the thermal performance of a proposed phase change material (PCM)-based battery pack under elevated ambient temperatures. In addition, the novel approach of the research addresses scenarios where the ambient temperature reaches the PCM’s melting point while maintaining the initial [...] Read more.

This study experimentally assesses the thermal performance of a proposed phase change material (PCM)-based battery pack under elevated ambient temperatures. In addition, the novel approach of the research addresses scenarios where the ambient temperature reaches the PCM’s melting point while maintaining the initial temperature at the ideal operating point of 22 °C. The experiments employed nine 2500 mAh 18650 lithium-ion cells connected in series and subjected to constant-current discharges of 1C and 3C, with a conventional air-cooled system as the baseline and paraffin as the PCM. The results indicate that as the ambient temperature reached the PCM’s melting point, approximately 98% utilization of the PCM around the heating cell was achieved. Additionally, the PCM demonstrates noticeable advantages over the baseline by stabilizing the temperature profile and reducing the maximum temperature increase rate from over 18 °C in the baseline system to around 7 °C. Notably, under a high-load (3C) discharge rate, the PCM-based system successfully maintained battery temperatures below 42 °C, demonstrating its effectiveness under demanding operational scenarios. These findings establish a critical baseline for PCM-based BTMSs operating under elevated ambient temperatures and up to the melting point of the PCM, thereby informing future research and development of more efficient PCM-based thermal management solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Thermal Management System for Lithium-Ion Batteries: 2nd Edition)

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