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The Water Cycle and Climate Change
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The Water Cycle and Climate Change

A special issue of Atmosphere (ISSN 2073-4433). This special issue belongs to the section "Climatology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (21 October 2022) | Viewed by 45479

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Jianyu Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, China
Interests: streamflow; flood; climate change; evapotranspiration; detection and attribution
Dr. Yulong Zhong

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Geography and Information Engineering, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, China
Interests: GRACE; terrestrial water storage; groundwater; evapotranspiration; reconstruction of TWSA
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Yuqing Zhang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
School of Geography and Planning, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai’an 223300, China
Interests: climate change; compound meteohydrological extremes; heat waves; droughts; model simulations
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Tingting Ning

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Northwest Institute of Eco-Environment and Resources, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China
Interests: evapotranspiration; water balance; climate change; attribution; Budyko framework

Special Issue Information

The global climate has experienced a dramatic change in recent decades, a phenomenon known as global warming. Climate change intensifies the global and regional water cycle, leading to significant changes in precipitation, evapotranspiration, streamflow, and water storage. Understanding the water cycle change and its causes at different spatiotemporal scales is crucial for climate change assessments and water resources management. However, the mechanisms of water cycle change, especially for quantitative causes, have not been fully understood yet. Therefore, it is important and necessary to quantify the impacts of climate change, as well as other anthropogenic factors on the water cycle, such as streamflow, evapotranspiration, floods, and drought.

This Special Issue provides a platform for studying the water cycle and its response to climate change, especially anthropogenic climate change. We sincerely invite researchers to contribute the latest research in terms of the water cycle and climate change. We encourage research manuscripts to focus on the following (not exclusive) topics:

(1) Contributions of climate change to the water cycle;

(2) Streamflow simulation and attribution;

(3) Floods and drought change and mechanisms;

(4) Anthropogenic climate change detection in the water cycle;

(5) Predictions of the future hydrological change.

Dr. Jianyu Liu
Dr. Yulong Zhong
Dr. Yuqing Zhang
Dr. Tingting Ning
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Atmosphere is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • climate change
  • streamflow
  • flood
  • terrestrial water storage
  • evapotranspiration

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Published Papers (15 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 16024 KiB  
Article
Heteroscedastic Characteristics of Precipitation with Climate Changes in China
by Zhonghua Qian, Luyao Wang, Xin Chen, Hui Zhang and Zimeng Li
Atmosphere 2022, 13(12), 2116; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13122116 - 16 Dec 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2237
Abstract
With global warming, previous studies have found nonuniformity responses of precipitation because of regional differences. However, climate change affects the mean, extreme, and data structure of precipitation. Quantile regression, which can reflect every part of the trends of data, was used to detect [...] Read more.
With global warming, previous studies have found nonuniformity responses of precipitation because of regional differences. However, climate change affects the mean, extreme, and data structure of precipitation. Quantile regression, which can reflect every part of the trends of data, was used to detect responses of each part of precipitation in China. The V2.0 dataset of daily precipitation grid data (0.5° × 0.5°) from 1961 to 2020 in China was used as practical observation data. Daily precipitation in 2015–2100 from the China Model BCC-CSM2-MR of scenarios SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5 were chosen as future climate changes with moderate and high radiative forcing, respectively. On the basis of the sign consistency of the slope coefficients with quantile regression, the results of quantiles q = 0.3, 0.5, 0.7 and 0.9 were selected to represent low, median, high and flood precipitation, respectively. Precipitation in four seasons was separately analyzed to observe seasonal characteristics in China. For the observation data, precipitation had obviously different responses in the low and high percentiles and was present in mainly spring and summer. In spring, in the middle and lower Yangtze Plains, the low and median precipitation increased, whereas the high and flood precipitation significantly decreased. In summer, Heilongjiang Province and northern Inner Mongolia showed decreasing trends in the low quantile and increasing trends in the high quantile, indicating a completely opposite trend adjustment. These regions deserve more attention. However, obviously different responses in low and high percentiles were not so evident in future climate changes. Self-consistency in model data may weaken the heteroscedastic characteristics of precipitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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13 pages, 4254 KiB  
Article
Sensitivity of Chlorophyll Variability to Specific Growth Rate of Phytoplankton Equation over the Yangtze River Estuary in a Physical–Biogeochemical Model
by Qiong Wu, Xiaochun Wang, Peng Xiu, Fei Chai and Zhongxiao Chen
Atmosphere 2022, 13(11), 1748; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111748 - 24 Oct 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1981
Abstract
In addition to nutrients and light, temperature plays a crucial role in marine biogeochemical processes. In this study, the sensitivity of the growth rate of phytoplankton to temperature was systematically studied by using a two-level nested physical–biogeochemical coupled model for the Yangtze River [...] Read more.
In addition to nutrients and light, temperature plays a crucial role in marine biogeochemical processes. In this study, the sensitivity of the growth rate of phytoplankton to temperature was systematically studied by using a two-level nested physical–biogeochemical coupled model for the Yangtze River estuary of the East China Sea. The physical component of the coupled model is configured from the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) with the highest horizontal resolution of 3 km. The biogeochemical component of the coupled model is based on the carbon, silicon and nitrogen ecosystem model (CoSiNE). Five specific growth rate of phytoplankton equations with different relation to temperature were tested with the objective of reproducing the temporal evolution of chlorophyll concentration as observed by SeaWiFS. Our results indicate that the specific growth rate of phytoplankton equation which is from Geider’s work, reaches a maximum at 22 °C and remains constant with higher temperature, can reproduce the seasonal variation of chlorophyll very well, and may be suitable for application in the physical–biogeochemical coupled model (ROMS-CoSiNE) of the Yangtze River estuary. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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19 pages, 11927 KiB  
Article
The Effects of Lake Level and Area Changes of Poyang Lake on the Local Weather
by Yulu Zan, Yanhong Gao, Yingsha Jiang, Yongjie Pan, Xia Li and Peixi Su
Atmosphere 2022, 13(9), 1490; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13091490 - 13 Sep 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2485
Abstract
Poyang Lake is the largest freshwater lake in China and is characterized by significant intra-annual variation, with higher water levels and area in the wet season compared to the dry season. However, the effects of the seasonal variation in Poyang Lake on the [...] Read more.
Poyang Lake is the largest freshwater lake in China and is characterized by significant intra-annual variation, with higher water levels and area in the wet season compared to the dry season. However, the effects of the seasonal variation in Poyang Lake on the local weather are still not well-recognized. With the help of the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model, we designed one control experiment (CTL) using the default Poyang Lake level and area data and two sensitivity experiments, EXPT1 and EXPT2, the former representing the higher lake level and the greater area of Poyang Lake in the wet season and the latter representing the lower lake level and the smaller area of Poyang Lake in the dry season, to assess how these changes affect the local weather. The results of EXPT1 show that, as the lake’s level and area increase, the latent heat flux (LH), the sensible heat flux (SH), and the land surface temperature (LST) in the lake area decrease compared to those of the CTL. Meanwhile, the planetary boundary layer height (PBL), the convective available potential energy (CAPE), the wind speed, and the vapor flux over the lake decrease as well, indicating increased atmospheric stratification stability and resulting in a domain-averaged decline in precipitation of −22.3 mm. However, the low lake level and less area in EXPT2 show increasing SH, LST, PBL, and wind speed, and decreasing LH and CAPE compared to those of the CTL. The increasing SH and weakened atmospheric stratification stability in EXPT2 cause a significantly higher wind speed over the eastern part of the lake. As a result, more water vapor is transported to the east side of the lake by westerly upper winds, leading to a decreasing precipitation on the western side of the lake and a slightly increasing precipitation on the eastern side, resulting ultimately in a domain-averaged decline in precipitation of −23.8 mm in the simulation of the low level and less area of Poyang Lake. Although the LH and CAPE decline both in EXPT1 and EXPT2, the main cause is the higher water thermal capacity and lower lake-surface temperature with more lake water for EXPT1 and the lower evaporation with less lake water for EXPT2. Overall, a deeper and larger Poyang Lake will reduce the local temperature, inhibit water evaporation from the lake surface, and make the near-surface atmosphere more stable, resulting in restrained local precipitation. A shrinking lake level and area will raise the local temperature and the instability of the near-surface atmosphere but reduce water vapor and enlarge local wind and circulation, resulting in declining precipitation and a changing fall zone. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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23 pages, 4363 KiB  
Article
Performance Evaluation of ERA5 Extreme Precipitation in the Yangtze River Delta, China
by Liucheng Shen, Jiahong Wen, Yuqing Zhang, Safi Ullah, Xiangchun Meng and Guanjie Chen
Atmosphere 2022, 13(9), 1416; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13091416 - 2 Sep 2022
Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3745
Abstract
Accurate extreme precipitation information is crucial for disaster risk management, social and economic development security, and climate change research. Taking the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), China, a high-impact area of extreme precipitation, as an example, this study evaluates the spatiotemporal performance of extreme [...] Read more.
Accurate extreme precipitation information is crucial for disaster risk management, social and economic development security, and climate change research. Taking the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), China, a high-impact area of extreme precipitation, as an example, this study evaluates the spatiotemporal performance of extreme precipitation in the latest fifth-generation reanalysis dataset from the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (i.e., ECMWF ERA5) for 1961–2018 based on surface observational precipitation data. The results showed that the 90th-percentile threshold of extreme precipitation extracted from ERA5 data with a daily precipitation amount >1 mm is closer to the actual observations. The ERA5 data can effectively capture the spatiotemporal patterns of the observed extreme precipitation in the YRD. The ERA5 data can successfully represent the seasonal cycle and interannual variability of daily, daytime, and nighttime extreme precipitation. However, the daytime (nighttime) extreme precipitation frequencies and amounts tend to be overestimated (underestimated) for the period 1961–2000, whereas they were significantly underestimated for the period 2000–2018. The trend estimation of seasonal and annual extreme precipitation in ERA5 needs to be improved. The ERA5 data revealed that the extreme precipitation in the YRD was dominated by large-scale precipitation, followed by convective precipitation, but their long-term trends were not clear. This study has conducted a detailed and reliable evaluation of the ERA5 extreme precipitation data. The findings serve as valuable guidance and provide accurate references to extreme climatic variables for data users and algorithm developers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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19 pages, 4080 KiB  
Article
Possible Impact of Early Spring Arctic Sea Ice on Meiyu Cessation over the Yangtze–Huaihe River Basin
by Jing Wang, Ning Fu, Ping Liang and Mingcai Li
Atmosphere 2022, 13(8), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081293 - 15 Aug 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1820
Abstract
The timing of the cessation of Meiyu is closely connected to the amount of Meiyu rainfall and the commencement of the rainy season in North China. Accurately forecasting the Meiyu withdrawal date (MWD) over the Yangtze–Huaihe River basin (YHRB) has significant implications for [...] Read more.
The timing of the cessation of Meiyu is closely connected to the amount of Meiyu rainfall and the commencement of the rainy season in North China. Accurately forecasting the Meiyu withdrawal date (MWD) over the Yangtze–Huaihe River basin (YHRB) has significant implications for the prevention and mitigation of flooding in eastern China. This study observed an intimate out-of-phase relationship between MWD variations and early spring (March and April) Arctic Sea ice area (SIA) anomalies to the north of the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas, as well as SIA anomalies to the north of the Queen Elizabeth Islands (75° N–82° N, 170° E–130° W and 82° N–86° N, 130° W–80° W, respectively) on the interannual timescale. As such, these can be considered key Arctic Sea ice domains connected to Meiyu cessation in the YHRB. The Arctic SIA anomalies in the key domains persist from early spring to early summer (May and June), thus exerting a lag modulation effect on year-to-year changes in Meiyu cessation, which can be demonstrated through observational analysis and results from the Community Earth System Model Large Ensemble Numerical Simulation (CESM-LENS) project. Specifically, the preceding negative SIA anomalies in the key domains are linked to a planetary-scale Rossby wave-like pattern emanating over areas to the northwest of the Chukchi Sea. This tele-connected wave-like pattern is conducive to the generation and maintenance of a quasi-barotropic “north-low–south-high” meridional see-saw pattern over the East Asian–Western North Pacific sector in July, which is a pivotal circulation pattern responsible for delayed Meiyu termination. Furthermore, the situation is the opposite in response to increased sea ice in these key domains within the Arctic. This study proposes a significant cryospheric forcing indicator for Meiyu cessation over the YHRB, which may provide helpful information for operational forecasting of the withdrawal timing of the Meiyu over the YHRB. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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29 pages, 14754 KiB  
Article
The Proportional Characteristics of Daytime and Nighttime Precipitation Based on Daily Precipitation in Huai River Basin, China
by Ying Zhu, Xiaoli Liu, Yuqing Zhang, Changchun Chen, Liucheng Shen, Qin Ju, Ting Zhou and Ping Xia
Atmosphere 2022, 13(8), 1287; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081287 - 13 Aug 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2363
Abstract
The daytime and nighttime precipitation proportions of daily total precipitation (especially extreme daily precipitation) are important indicators that help to understand the process of precipitation formation, which in turn helps to evaluate and improve models and reanalysis precipitation data. In this study, we [...] Read more.
The daytime and nighttime precipitation proportions of daily total precipitation (especially extreme daily precipitation) are important indicators that help to understand the process of precipitation formation, which in turn helps to evaluate and improve models and reanalysis precipitation data. In this study, we used the Huai River Basin (HRB) as a case to explore the daytime and nighttime precipitation proportions of daily total precipitation based on 135 meteorological stations during 1961–2018. The total, daytime, and nighttime precipitation showed zonal distributions with high and low values in the southern and northern parts of the basin, respectively. The nighttime precipitation was slightly greater than the daytime precipitation. With the increase in precipitation intensity, the seasonal cycles of the total, daytime, and nighttime precipitation were more distinct, and precipitation mainly occurred in summer. The annual range of precipitation differences between daytime and nighttime in wet seasons showed a downward trend in 1961–2003 followed by an upward trend in 2003–2018. This reversal of annual range of precipitation around 2003 may be related to the changes in annual range of convective precipitation differences between daytime and nighttime in wet seasons. The decrease of light precipitation mainly depended on the decrease of nighttime precipitation. The contributions of nighttime precipitation events to torrential precipitation events were greater than those of daytime precipitation. The days of extreme precipitation events accounted for a very low proportion of total precipitation days, but their precipitation amount accounted for relatively high proportions of total precipitation amount. Annual extreme precipitation amount showed a slightly upward trend, which was caused by the increased nighttime precipitation. Under extreme precipitation conditions, large proportions of daytime precipitation were mainly concentrated in the southeastern parts of the HRB, whereas large proportions of nighttime precipitation were mainly concentrated in the northwestern parts of the basin. The concurrent daytime and nighttime precipitation showed slightly increasing trends, especially in the southeastern part of the basin. With the increase in daytime and nighttime precipitation, the risk of concurrent precipitation extremes in the southern part of the basin increased (shorter return period means higher risk). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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18 pages, 3662 KiB  
Article
Variations in Summer Precipitation According to Different Grades and Their Effects on Summer Drought/Flooding in Haihe River Basin
by Shanjun Cheng, Jun Xie, Ning Ma, Sujie Liang, Jun Guo and Ning Fu
Atmosphere 2022, 13(8), 1246; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081246 - 5 Aug 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1901
Abstract
The variations in summer precipitation according to different grades and their effects on summer drought/flooding in the Haihe River basin were analyzed using the daily precipitation data from 161 meteorological stations from 1972 to 2021. The results showed that the number of rainy [...] Read more.
The variations in summer precipitation according to different grades and their effects on summer drought/flooding in the Haihe River basin were analyzed using the daily precipitation data from 161 meteorological stations from 1972 to 2021. The results showed that the number of rainy days (NRD) in summer in the Haihe River basin significantly declined in the past 50 years, mainly due to the reduction in the number of light-rain days. The precipitation amount (PA) exhibited prominent interdecadal characteristics, showing an upward tendency in the past 20 years accompanied by a remarkable increase in the proportion of torrential rain. The NRD in the northern part of the basin significantly decreased, while the PA in the southeast showed an increasing trend. Summer drought/flooding was strongly linked to the changes in the NRD and was predominantly affected by intense precipitation, with contribution rates of 5.5%, 16.8%, 31.2%, and 46.5% from light, moderate, heavy, and torrential rain, respectively. The effects of torrential rain increased in recent decades, particularly in the flooding scenarios. In addition, July was the critical period for summer drought/flooding, with the major influence of heavy and torrential rain. The most intense summer rainfall event in the Haihe River basin could contribute from 15% to 29% of total precipitation, resulting in changes in the severity and state of summer drought/flooding, which indicated that the precipitation process had a decisive impact on seasonal drought/flooding. Therefore, when predicting summer precipitation in the Haihe River basin, it is necessary to pay attention to the intense rainfall events during critical periods. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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17 pages, 4330 KiB  
Article
Variation of Relative Humidity as Seen through Linking Water Vapor to Air Temperature: An Assessment of Interannual Variations in the Near-Surface Atmosphere
by Jiawei Hao and Er Lu
Atmosphere 2022, 13(8), 1171; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13081171 - 24 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3441
Abstract
It has generally been regarded that, in the warming climate, atmospheric water vapor may increase due to the enhancement in surface evaporation, which is expected from the Clausius–Clapeyron (C–C) equation, along with the assumption that relative humidity experiences small changes. If the variation [...] Read more.
It has generally been regarded that, in the warming climate, atmospheric water vapor may increase due to the enhancement in surface evaporation, which is expected from the Clausius–Clapeyron (C–C) equation, along with the assumption that relative humidity experiences small changes. If the variation in relative humidity is small, the response of water vapor to temperature will be closely in line with the C–C equation. However, whether relative humidity experiences large or small changes needs be assessed, and the change of relative humidity should be compared with the change in surface–air temperature. In this study, we link surface vapor pressure, which characterizes atmospheric water vapor, to surface-air temperature, and treat both the temperature and relative humidity as influencing factors. A method based on linear regression is applied to compare the interannual variabilities of relative humidity and temperature in the interannual variation in surface vapor pressure. Whether the year-to-year perturbation of relative humidity is important, compared with the perturbation in surface-air temperature, is explored Results show that, at high latitudes of both hemispheres, the variation in vapor pressure is dominated by air temperature, and relative humidity has small positive contributions. Thus, the variation in relative humidity over these regions is comparably small, and the response of water vapor to temperature can well follow the C–C equation. Differently, at mid-low latitudes, especially on land, air temperature plays a negative role in the variation in vapor pressure. Relative humidity offsets the negative contribution and dominates the variation in vapor pressure, suggesting that the variation in the relative humidity over these regions is comparably large. Hence, the response of water vapor to temperature deviate from the C–C equation. Analysis indicates that the different results of the dominance from the two influencing factors are affected by the dual effects of precipitation or wet-air transport over land. Both precipitation and the transport of cold wet air could break the C–C relation between water vapor pressure and temperature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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17 pages, 5009 KiB  
Article
Design Hyetograph for Short-Duration Rainstorm in Jiangsu
by Jie Yang, Ying Xiang, Xiazhen Xu and Jiali Sun
Atmosphere 2022, 13(6), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13060899 - 1 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3283
Abstract
The rainstorm intensity formula and the design of rainstorm hyetographs are important aspects in drainage design standards. Against the backdrop of climate change, in most cities in Jiangsu Province of China, significant trends of increasing intensities of heavy rainfall are apparent. The parameters [...] Read more.
The rainstorm intensity formula and the design of rainstorm hyetographs are important aspects in drainage design standards. Against the backdrop of climate change, in most cities in Jiangsu Province of China, significant trends of increasing intensities of heavy rainfall are apparent. The parameters of the rainstorm intensity formula are no longer applicable in the current context of significantly stronger rainstorms. To adapt to this change, we first contrasted the fitting accuracy of the Gumbel distribution, the exponential distribution, and the Pearson III distribution for the rainstorm intensity formula in Jiangsu. It was found that the Gumbel distribution has the smallest relative mean square error in most cities, proving that it provides the best estimation of rainstorm intensity formula parameters. Therefore, the rainstorm intensity formula parameters for 13 cities was revised using the Gumbel distribution based on the rainfall data from 1991 to 2020. Then, the precipitation with a 100-year return period was calculated using the revised formula. Moreover, to compensate for the lack of storm hyetographs that have been designed for Jiangsu, we designed short-duration rainstorm hyetographs for 13 cities using the Chicago hyetograph method and the Pilgrim and Cordery (PC) method. The results show that most of the short-duration rainstorms lasted between 45 and 120 min and were dominated by single-peaked patterns, with the peak position typically occurring in the first half of the rainfall cycle. The peak coefficient distribution of short-duration rainstorms shows that short-duration rainstorms in the south reached their peak rainfall intensity earlier than those in the north. On this basis, using the Chicago method and PC method, short-duration storm hyetographs were designed, which could be used in the design of drainage systems to provide support in effectively reducing urban flood threats. By comparing the hyetographs with real short-duration rainstorm patterns, it was found that the precipitation process designed using the PC method was most similar to the actual precipitation process. However, the PC method was found to be highly dependent on local precipitation data, whereas only the rain peak coefficient is required to design the Chicago rainstorm hyetograph. Therefore, we primarily recommend hyetographs designed using the PC method for Jiangsu Province’s 13 major cities, while we recommend the Chicago hyetograph for the surrounding areas of the 13 cities that have no meteorological stations or lack data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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13 pages, 3713 KiB  
Article
An Estimation of Precipitation Retention Time Using Depth Metres in the Northern Basin of Lake Biwa
by Maho Iwaki, Kazuhide Hayakawa and Naoshige Goto
Atmosphere 2022, 13(5), 724; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13050724 - 1 May 2022
Viewed by 2524
Abstract
To facilitate climate change adaptations and water management, estimates of precipitation retention time (time required for precipitation to reach a lake) can help to accurately determine a water body’s terrestrial water storage capacity and water cycle. Although estimating the precipitation retention time on [...] Read more.
To facilitate climate change adaptations and water management, estimates of precipitation retention time (time required for precipitation to reach a lake) can help to accurately determine a water body’s terrestrial water storage capacity and water cycle. Although estimating the precipitation retention time on land is difficult, estimating the lag between precipitation on land and a rise in lake water levels is possible. In this study, the delay times (using a depth metre installed in the mooring system in the northern basin of Lake Biwa from August 2017 to October 2018) were calculated using response functions, and it evaluated the precipitation retention time in the catchment. However, as several delays between the river surface flow (<1 d) and shallow subsurface flow (≈45 d) remained unidentified, the delay times resulting from direct precipitation on the lake as well as from internal seiches were determined. The results suggest that delay times of approximately 20 d correspond to the paddy–waterway system between the river inflow and the subsurface flow, and that this effect corresponds to that of large rivers such as the Ane River. These findings can enhance water management strategies regarding the regulation of river flows, adapting to climate change-induced fluctuations in precipitation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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12 pages, 2045 KiB  
Article
Evapotranspiration Variations of the Minjiang River Basin in Southeastern China from 2000 to 2019
by Yijin Lu, Yuanyuan Wang, Qun Liu, Xingwei Chen, Yuqing Zhang, Lu Gao, Ying Chen, Meibing Liu and Haijun Deng
Atmosphere 2022, 13(4), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13040562 - 30 Mar 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2417
Abstract
Evapotranspiration is one of the critical processes in the terrestrial hydrological cycle, and the assessment of evapotranspiration is essential for understanding the regional hydrological cycle. In this study, the Minjiang River Basin, a typical watershed in the humid subtropical climate zone, is selected [...] Read more.
Evapotranspiration is one of the critical processes in the terrestrial hydrological cycle, and the assessment of evapotranspiration is essential for understanding the regional hydrological cycle. In this study, the Minjiang River Basin, a typical watershed in the humid subtropical climate zone, is selected as the study region. The Penman-Monteith equation and the dual crop coefficient method are used to calculate the actual evapotranspiration (ETa) at seven meteorological stations within the study basin. Meanwhile, the applicability of the Global Land Data Assimilation System-Noah (GLDAS-Noah) ETa data in the Minjiang River Basin is evaluated based on stations P-M equation results, then to analyze the changes of the ETa in the Minjiang River Basin from 2000 to 2019. The results show that the GLDAS-Noah ETa data are well applicable in the Minjiang River Basin (R2 > 0.9 and NSE > 0.8). The ETa in the basin shows an increasing trend since 2000, and the increasing rate is 3.60 mm·yr−1 (p < 0.01). The seasonal variation results show that ETa tends to increase in winter and spring, with increasing rates of 1.10 mm·yr−1 (p < 0.01) and 2.60 mm·yr−1 (p < 0.01), respectively, while the ETa did not change significantly in summer and autumn. Annual air temperature has the largest effect on annual ETa (59.6%), followed by precipitation at 33.9%. ETa increased in spring was mainly influenced by increasing temperatures (89.4%) in the Minjiang River Basin from 2000 to 2019. The research results are of great benefit to further improve the understanding of ETa variations in the basin under global warming. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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19 pages, 11111 KiB  
Article
Spatiotemporal Changes of sc-PDSI and Its Dynamic Drivers in Yellow River Basin
by Wen Liu and Yuqing Zhang
Atmosphere 2022, 13(3), 399; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13030399 - 28 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2475
Abstract
Droughts in the Yellow River Basin (YRB), a typical large river in arid to semiarid regions, have been studied extensively. However, the details of the dynamic drivers of meteorological droughts, such as precipitation (P), reference evapotranspiration (ET0), and actual evapotranspiration (AET), [...] Read more.
Droughts in the Yellow River Basin (YRB), a typical large river in arid to semiarid regions, have been studied extensively. However, the details of the dynamic drivers of meteorological droughts, such as precipitation (P), reference evapotranspiration (ET0), and actual evapotranspiration (AET), are unclear in the YRB, as is whether or not the main dynamic driver of meteorological drought in each subzone is consistent. In order to solve this issue, we analyzed (1) the seasonal distribution of drought in the YRB and (2) sc-PDSI and dynamic driver’s trends by using linear trends, Sen’s slope, and Z statistics in the YRB from 1951 to 2017; (3) the probability distribution of sc-PDSI, P, ET0, and AET; (4) the correlation of the sc-PDSI with some factors that drive drought; and (5) conducted a Pearson correlation analysis between sc-PDSI and the dynamic drivers at the 0.5° pixel scale. The results show that (1) the northwest region in the YRB was drier than the southeast region, and the drought in spring and winter was more severe than in other seasons. (2) The sc-PDSI showed a downwards trend (−0.47/decade), P and AET also showed a downwards trend (−3.408 mm/decade, −0.27 mm/decade), while ET0 showed a significant upwards trend (12.013 mm/decade) in the YRB. (3) The midstream of the YRB had the highest risk of drought. (4) The P, ET0, and AET were highly correlated with the sc-PDSI on a 12-month timescale. (5) The main dynamic driver of the upstream and downstream drought is P, and the main dynamic driver of the midstream drought was ET0. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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15 pages, 3839 KiB  
Article
Can Arctic Sea Ice Influence the Extremely Cold Days and Nights in Winter over the Tibetan Plateau?
by Yang Jiao, Yuqing Zhang and Peng Hu
Atmosphere 2022, 13(2), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020246 - 31 Jan 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2601
Abstract
The Arctic, Antarctic, and Tibetan Plateau (TP) are the northernmost, the southernmost, and the highest places of the Earth, respectively, known as Earth’s “three poles”. The Arctic and TP are the “North Pole” and “Third Pole”, and they exert a significant influence on [...] Read more.
The Arctic, Antarctic, and Tibetan Plateau (TP) are the northernmost, the southernmost, and the highest places of the Earth, respectively, known as Earth’s “three poles”. The Arctic and TP are the “North Pole” and “Third Pole”, and they exert a significant influence on the regional and global climate. This study analyzed the changing characteristics of Arctic sea ice and explored relationships between extreme cold days on the TP and sea ice concentration in the Arctic. From 1979 to 2019, the sea ice concentration of August–October decreased significantly. The low concentration of sea ice leads to a warmer Arctic and causes cold air over the Arctic to be unstable and more likely to move into the southern. Over the TP, the frequent cold air activities lead to more extreme cold events. This article aims to investigate the response characteristics of atmospheric circulation via the NCAR–CAM5.1 model (National Center for Atmospheric Research Community Atmosphere Model, Version 5.1). In order to verify the mechanism of Arctic sea ice concentration impacts on the extreme low temperature of the TP, we designed three experimental plans with different sea ice concentrations and sea surface temperatures (SST). In the two sensitivity experiments, the decrease in sea ice concentration and the increase in SST from August to October in the key areas are amplified simultaneously. The simulation results show that the increases in atmosphere thickness of 950–500 hPa in the Arctic from November to the following February reduce the meridional thickness-gradients between the Arctic and the middle latitudes. The westerly flow in middle–high latitudes weakened. As a result, the polar vortex over the Arctic is more likely to move south. There are negative geopotential height anomalies at 500 hPa over the Arctic and TP and positive anomalies over Eurasia. The anticyclonic system at 500 hPa slightly strengthens in the high latitudes of Eurasia (northerly winds in the TP). Strongly negative anomalies of temperature in the northern parts of the TP generate the cold source. To the north of the TP, the strengthened meridional propagation in middle–high latitudes causes more cold extremes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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16 pages, 3011 KiB  
Article
Predicting the Hydrological Impacts of Future Climate Change in a Humid-Subtropical Watershed
by Haroon Rashid, Kaijie Yang, Aicong Zeng, Song Ju, Abdur Rashid, Futao Guo and Siren Lan
Atmosphere 2022, 13(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13010012 - 22 Dec 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 4033
Abstract
Future climate change is expected to impact the natural systems. This study used future climate data of general circulation models (GCMs) to investigate the impacts of climate change during the future period (2062–2095) relative to the historical period (1981–2014) on the hydrological system [...] Read more.
Future climate change is expected to impact the natural systems. This study used future climate data of general circulation models (GCMs) to investigate the impacts of climate change during the future period (2062–2095) relative to the historical period (1981–2014) on the hydrological system of the Minjiang river watershed, China. A previously calibrated soil and water assessment tool (SWAT) was employed to simulate the future hydrology under the impacts of changes in temperature, precipitation, and atmospheric CO2 concentration for four shared socioeconomic pathways (SSP 1, 2, 3, and 5) of the CMIP6. The study revealed that the impacts of increase in future temperature, i.e., increase in ET, and decrease in surface runoff, water, and sediment yield will be countered by increased atmospheric [CO2], and changes in the hydrological parameters in the future will be mostly associated to changes in precipitation. Data of the GCMs for all the SSPs predicts increase in precipitation of the watershed, which will cause increase in surface runoff, water yield, and sediment yield. Surface runoff will increase more in SSP 5 (47%), while sediment and water yield will increase more in SSP 1, by 33% and 23%, respectively. At the seasonal scale, water yield and surface runoff will increase more in autumn and winter in SSP 1, while in other scenarios, these parameters will increase more in the spring and summer seasons. Sediment yield will increase more in autumn in all scenarios. Similarly, the future climate change is predicted to impact the important parameters related to the flow regime of the Minjiang river, i.e., the frequency and peak of large floods (flows > 14,000 m3/s) will increase along the gradient of scenarios, i.e., more in SSP 5 followed by 3, 2, and 1, while duration will increase in SSP 5 and decrease in the other SSPs. The frequency and duration of extreme low flows will increase in SSP 5 while decrease in SSP 1. Moreover, peak of extreme low flows will decrease in all scenarios except SSP 1, in which it will increase. The study will improve the general understanding about the possible impacts of future climate change in the region and provide support for improving the management and protection of the watershed’s water and soil resources. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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17 pages, 3028 KiB  
Article
Evapotranspiration Estimation Using Remote Sensing Technology Based on a SEBAL Model in the Upper Reaches of the Huaihe River Basin
by Linshan Tan, Kaiyuan Zheng, Qiangqiang Zhao and Yanjuan Wu
Atmosphere 2021, 12(12), 1599; https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12121599 - 30 Nov 2021
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 5082
Abstract
Understanding the spatial and temporal variations of evapotranspiration (ET) is vital for water resources planning and management and drought monitoring. The development of a satellite remote sensing technique is described to provide insight into the estimation of ET at a regional [...] Read more.
Understanding the spatial and temporal variations of evapotranspiration (ET) is vital for water resources planning and management and drought monitoring. The development of a satellite remote sensing technique is described to provide insight into the estimation of ET at a regional scale. In this study, the Surface Energy Balance Algorithm for Land (SEBAL) was used to calculate the actual ET on a daily scale from Landsat-8 data and daily ground-based meteorological data in the upper reaches of Huaihe River on 20 November 2013, 16 April 2015 and 23 March 2018. In order to evaluate the performance of the SEBAL model, the daily SEBAL ET (ETSEBAL) was compared against the daily reference ET (ET0) from four theoretical methods: the Penman-Monteith (P-M), Irmak-Allen (I-A), the Turc, and Jensen-Haise (J-H) method, the ETMOD16 product from the MODerate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MOD16) and the ETVIC from Variable Infiltration Capacity Model (VIC). A linear regression equation and statistical indices were used to model performance evaluation. The results showed that the daily ETSEBAL correlated very well with the ET0, ETMOD16, and ETVIC, and bias between the ETSEBAL with them was less than 1.5%. In general, the SEBAL model could provide good estimations in daily ET over the study region. In addition, the spatial-temporal distribution of ETSEBAL was explored. The variation of ETSEBAL was significant in seasons with high values during the growth period of vegetation in March and April and low values in November. Spatially, the daily ETSEBAL values in the mountain area were much higher than those in the plain areas over the study region. The variability of ETSEBAL in this study area was positively correlated with elevation and negatively correlated with surface reflectance, which implies that elevation and surface reflectance are the important factors for predicting ET in this study area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Water Cycle and Climate Change)
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