Spatial Analysis on Urban Justice Delivering the Community Parks: A Case of the Saudi Arabian City of Al-Khobar

Highlights

What are the main findings?

• GIS-based spatial analysis revealed significant inequities in the availability, accessibility, and distribution of community parks across Al-Khobar City, with over 20 neighborhoods lacking adequate green space.
• The integration of GIS spatial mapping and user satisfaction surveys provided a comprehensive understanding of spatial and experiential disparities in urban park provision.

What are the implications of the main findings?

• Findings emphasize the need for evidence-based planning policies to enhance equitable access to parks and align local development with Saudi Vision 2030 and SDG 11 targets.
• The study proposes a replicable GIS survey framework for assessing urban green space equity that can guide smart and sustainable urban design strategies in other Saudi and Middle Eastern cities.

Abstract

This study evaluates the spatial equity of community parks in Al-Khobar City, Saudi Arabia, by examining their proximity, availability, distribution, accessibility, and user satisfaction. Ensuring equitable access to public open spaces is vital for promoting urban liveability and achieving the sustainability objectives of Saudi Vision 2030. A mixed-methods approach integrating Geographic Information System (GIS)-based spatial analysis with a structured user survey was applied. GIS was used to map park locations, calculate per capita green space, and assess accessibility within a 500 m walking radius, while survey data from 300 respondents captured user satisfaction and perceptions of community park dimensions and indicators. The results reveal pronounced spatial disparities across neighbourhoods, with more than twenty areas lacking any park access and several others falling below the 5 m² per capita standard. In contrast, centrally located neighbourhoods demonstrate adequate provision and higher satisfaction levels. These findings indicate a fragmented and inequitable park distribution that limits community well-being and social inclusion. The study concludes that integrating GIS-based evidence with community feedback can inform data-driven planning policies and promote equitable, accessible, and sustainable community parks. The proposed framework offers a replicable model for assessing urban green space equity in other Saudi and Middle Eastern cities.

1. Introduction

Rapid urbanization has reshaped cities worldwide, with approximately 55% of the global population living in urban areas—projected to exceed 68% by 2050 [1]. Many Middle Eastern countries have already surpassed these projections [2]. Yet, access to public open spaces (POS) remains limited, particularly in developing regions. The 2023 UN SDG Report found that over 75% of surveyed cities devote less than 20% of their total area to open spaces and roads—far below the UN’s recommended 45–50% [3,4]. Public open spaces such as community parks are vital urban components that foster social cohesion, encourage outdoor activity, and enhance collective well-being [5]. The United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11.7 explicitly emphasizes providing universal access to safe, inclusive, and accessible green spaces for all [6].

Saudi Arabia, the largest country in the Middle East, has a population exceeding 32 million, with 83% residing in cities [7]. The Eastern Province—home to Al-Khobar City—is the Kingdom’s third most populous region. Characterized by an arid climate with summer temperatures reaching 42 °C, the region’s environmental conditions underscore the need for shaded, accessible, and sustainable outdoor environments [8]. As urbanization accelerates, the strategic management of public spaces has become essential. The growth of the landscape architecture profession in Saudi Arabia, together with increasing integration of global design approaches, offers an opportunity to establish resilient and culturally grounded urban spaces [9,10].

Aligned with Vision 2030, Saudi Arabia’s Quality of Life Program seeks to enhance livability through better urban design, promoting equitable access to public open spaces while balancing environmental conservation [11,12]. Within this framework, the Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs and Housing (MOMRA) mandates the inclusion of POS in housing development plans comprising roads, walkways, playgrounds, and gardens. At the neighborhood scale, each park should provide a minimum of 5000 m², equivalent to 5 m² of green space per capita [13]. However, these standards focus primarily on quantity rather than quality, lacking comprehensive design and management guidelines. Moreover, many proposed open spaces remain unrealized due to financial and administrative constraints [14].

The Vision 2030 Quality of Life Program (2018) sets a national target to increase public space per capita from 3.48 m² to 4.65 m² by 2023 [15]. Despite ongoing challenges, initiatives such as Green Riyadh illustrate growing efforts to expand urban greenery and strengthen community engagement in urban development [16,17]. Nonetheless, public participation in decision-making remains limited, and the absence of integrated spatial planning continues to hinder the realization of inclusive and equitable green infrastructure [18]. GIS serves as an advanced tool for evidence-based urban planning, enabling the collection, visualization, and analysis of spatial data to guide sustainable development. It supports the assessment of multiple SDGs, including the green infrastructure, public spaces, and identification of priority intervention areas. In Saudi Arabia, GIS applications align closely with Vision 2030 goals, enhancing urban liveability through spatial optimization and informed decision-making [19].

Sustainable public open spaces deliver substantial socio-economic and ecological benefits, promoting physical and psychological well-being [20,21,22]. Within this context, community parks are essential neighborhood-level spaces designed for recreation, relaxation, and social interaction [23]. They serve as vital nodes for social engagement and environmental awareness, improving quality of life through proximity and inclusivity [24,25].

Currie (2017) proposed a design framework emphasizing accessibility (provide easy, nearby access to nature for a greater number of people), authenticity (the spirit of the place reflects the user’s values and needs in the design process), adaptability (reflects change over time—a sustainable model that provides for flexibility and continuity), and functionality (provide uses that respond to the surrounding population’s wants and/or needs), specificity (The specific reason a design is appropriate in a specific location. Uniqueness comes from such things as historic, cultural, or geographic significance) [26]. While Malek et al. (2011) identified key elements influencing user satisfaction, such as natural setting, safety, aesthetics, and comfort [27]. However, in Saudi Arabia, the limited application of these principles has led to fragmented and inequitable park systems. The absence of coordination among institutions and non-specialists’ involvement in design and management further exacerbates disparities in park quality and accessibility [16].

In urban design, the “five- to ten-minute walk” principle is commonly adopted to ensure equitable access to parks, corresponding to 400–800 m walking distance) [28,29,30]. In Saudi Arabia, 500 m is widely accepted as an appropriate walking threshold [31]. Accessibility is influenced not only by proximity but also by climatic conditions, pedestrian safety, and inclusive design [29,32,33]. Centrally located, well-connected community parks enhance neighborhood livability by encouraging frequent use and fostering social inclusivity [23]. Parks in the Kingdom also carry cultural significance. They often reflect social norms by prioritizing family-oriented layouts, privacy, and gender-sensitive design, illustrating the intersection between spatial planning and cultural context [34]. Yet, despite their cultural and environmental importance, the lack of clear spatial standards and the undervaluing of urban planning have produced neighborhoods lacking essential amenities, including public green spaces [18]. Table 1 below presents neighbourhood/community park design dimensions and indicators based on the literature.

Table 1. Defined Planning Indicators Used to Assess Accessibility, Availability, Distribution, and Proximity of Community Parks within Urban Neighbourhoods. Source: [13,15,23,25,26,27,28,29,30].

Dimension	Indicators
1. Proximity	1.1. Access to a park within five to ten minutes’ walking distance from the residence
	1.2. Walking radius of 400 to 800 square meters
2. Accessibility	2.1. Easy and nearby access to nature for a large number of people
	2.2. Parks should be centrally located within communities
	2.3. Ensure inclusive access regardless of physical ability or background
	2.4. Safety of access routes
3. Availability	3.1. Parks should occupy no more than 33% of the total site area
	3.2. Each neighbourhood must have at least one community park or access to a nearby park within a defined walking distance
	3.3. Provision of at least one playground per 20 residential blocks
4. Distribution	4.1. Equitable distribution of parks by providing at least 5 m2 of green space per capita
	4.2. A minimum of 5000 square meters of parkland is required per neighbourhood

Parks in the Kingdom carry cultural and environmental importance; there is a lack of clear spatial standards, and the undervaluing of urban planning has produced neighborhoods lacking essential amenities, including public green spaces [18]. Despite Saudi Arabia’s ongoing urban transformation under Vision 2030, there remains a lack of systematic evaluation of community parks’ spatial availability, accessibility, distribution, and quality in Saudi cities. Moreover, the absence of GIS-based spatial assessment integrated with user perception analysis has hindered evidence-based urban planning decisions. Consequently, it is unclear whether current community park provisions effectively support social well-being, spatial equity, and the sustainability goals outlined in Vision 2030.

Against this background, this study evaluates the spatial proximity, availability, distribution, and accessibility of community parks in Al-Khobar City, integrating (GIS) spatial analysis with user perception data. The study focuses on the neighborhood level, the most immediate and socially relevant urban scale where community parks have direct impacts on well-being, social interaction, and environmental equity. By connecting macro-level goals of Vision 2030 with micro-level spatial realities, this research aims to provide an assessment for equitable, sustainable, and context-sensitive park planning in Saudi cities.

2. Dataset and Study Area

Al-Khobar is one of the fastest-growing cities in Saudi Arabia’s Eastern Province, a major economic and urban hub. The city has undergone rapid urbanization characterized by expanding residential districts, increasing population density, and a growing dependency on private vehicles. Despite this development, the distribution of community parks and urban greenery remains undiscovered. Urban expansion has led to fragmented open space networks and limited walkable connections between parks and residential areas. These conditions make Al-Khobar a representative case for studying spatial equity within mid-sized Saudi cities, particularly as municipalities work toward achieving national targets for liveability, walkability, and environmental quality under Vision 2030. Figure 1 presents the study area administrative boundaries.

Figure 1. Administrative boundaries of Al-Khobar Neighbourhoods.

To evaluate the proximity, availability, distribution, accessibility, and per capita provision of community parks in Al-Khobar City, this study employed a combination of spatial and survey-based datasets. The dataset is presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Datasets Used for Spatial Analysis of Community Parks in Al-Khobar City.

Dataset Component	Description	Data Source	Purpose of Use
Administrative Boundaries	Shapefiles of city and neighbourhood boundaries.	Online Esri Saudi Arabia	To define spatial analysis units and ensure alignment across data layers.
Community Parks Locations	Geographic coordinates and spatial distribution of all community parks within Al-Khobar City.	Sharqia Development Authority (SDA)	To map park locations and assess spatial distribution patterns.
Park Area	Total park size (m2) per park and per neighbourhood.	Created by author using ArcGIS 10.8	To calculate total green space and assess per capita park provision.
Population Distribution	Population counts for each neighbourhood.	General Authority for Statistics (GASTAT)	To determine per capita green space and evaluate equity of access.
Accessibility Buffers	500 m walking distance buffers generated around each park.	Created by author using ArcGIS 10.8	To evaluate walkable access and spatial proximity to parks.

Additionally, an online survey with a set of structured questions was distributed to ensure a community engagement approach and to gather insights into users’ satisfaction levels regarding the quality of Al-Khobar parks. This assessment aimed to validate the data and identify common weaknesses using several key indicators derived from the literature, as depicted in Table 1. As shown in Table 3, the survey captured quantitative data, focusing on user experiences and satisfaction.

Table 3. Summary of Survey Dataset and Key Components.

Survey Component	Description	Data Type/Scale	Purpose of Use
Target Group	Park users residing in Al-Khobar City. Total of 500 distributed surveys, with 300 valid responses collected.	Quantitative (random sampling)	To ensure community engagement and obtain representative user perspectives.
Demographics	Participants’ gender and age group.	Categorical variables (e.g., male/female; age ranges 18–25, 26–35, etc.)	To understand the demographic profile of park users and evaluate inclusivity.
Park Usage Patterns	Frequency of park visits and proximity of parks to respondents’ residences.	Ordinal (frequency scale)	To assess behavioral patterns and physical accessibility to community parks.
Satisfaction Indicators	User ratings of park dimensions and indicators.	Five-point Likert scale (0 = not applicable; 5 = highly satisfied)	To measure user satisfaction and identify key strengths and weaknesses.
Survey Instrument Design	Structured online questionnaire based on literature-derived indicators (see Table 1).	Quantitative and descriptive	To validate GIS findings through user perception and satisfaction data.
Analysis Method	Descriptive and inferential statistical analysis (weighted mean, standard deviation, ranking, Cronbach’s α, Pearson correlation).	Numerical/statistical	To assess internal reliability, identify correlations, and triangulate with GIS results.

3. Methodology

This section outlines the research methodology, which integrates both qualitative and quantitative data collection methods to evaluate the availability, distribution, and accessibility of community parks in Al-Khobar City. The study employs GIS-based spatial analysis to assess the availability, distribution, and accessibility of parks within neighbourhoods. By utilizing a mixed-methods approach integrating GIS-based spatial analysis with survey-based user perspectives the research not only provides objective evidence of spatial disparities but also captures subjective experiences of inclusivity, accessibility, and satisfaction. Figure 2 illustrates the research methodological framework.

Figure 2. Methodological Framework.

The first phase established the conceptual and methodological basis of the study by defining its purpose, scope, and analytical approach. It involved identifying the research problem, articulating the overarching aim, and aligning it with the objectives of Sustainable Development Goal 11 and Saudi Vision 2030, both of which emphasize enhancing urban liveability and accessibility to public open spaces. This stage also involved reviewing relevant literature to identify measurable indicators for assessing community parks namely proximity, accessibility, availability, and distribution, which guided the design of subsequent GIS and survey analyses.

The second phase focused on empirical analysis through the integration of GIS-based spatial data and survey responses.

1.

Spatial analysis:

GIS Mappings of Al-Khobar City aims to assess parks availability, distribution, accessibility, and proximity. The analysis integrated geospatial layers to generate meaningful insights and visualize disparities in park provision across the city. Geospatial datasets were obtained from the SDA and the GASTAT, using ArcMap 10.8 to evaluate spatial equity in park provision. Five thematic maps were generated to visualize and support this assessment.

2.

Survey analysis:

The questionnaire survey was designed to capture users’ perceptions of community parks in Al-Khobar City, focusing on four core dimensions, proximity, accessibility, availability, and distribution, as identified in the literature review. These dimensions were represented by 11 specific indicators derived from established planning standards and previous scholarly research (see Table 1). The survey consisted of closed-ended items rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (very satisfied).

The survey was administered digitally using Google Forms and disseminated through sharing the link via social media platforms (WhatsApp community groups). A random sampling approach was employed by inviting participation widely across different neighbourhoods without targeting specific demographic groups, allowing residents, families, and visitors to respond voluntarily. This strategy enhanced geographic coverage and reduced sampling bias. A total of 300 valid responses were collected between January and July 2025.

The collected data were analysed using Microsoft Excel software (2024). Statistical analysis included descriptive statistics (weighted mean, standard deviation, Relative Importance Index (RII), and simple ranking) to summarize satisfaction levels across the evaluated dimensions. Cronbach’s Alpha was applied to test the internal consistency and reliability of the instrument, while Pearson correlation analysis examined the interrelationships among key indicators. Additionally, a One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was conducted to compare the mean overall satisfaction (out of 5.0) between the different groups within each independent variable, identifying statistically significant variations in user perceptions. These analytical techniques collectively enabled the identification of key strengths and deficiencies in community park provision and informed a set of evidence-based recommendations for improving urban green space planning and management in Al-Khobar.

The final phase synthesized the findings from the spatial and survey analyses to address the study’s overarching aim. Three interrelated steps were undertaken:

• Integration of Data Sources

The results of the GIS-based spatial analysis were systematically compared with user survey findings. This cross-validation strengthened the reliability of the results by linking objective spatial patterns with subjective user experiences.

• Identification of Key Deficiencies

The integrated analysis identified critical deficiencies in park provision, including inequities in spatial distribution, limited accessibility in certain neighbourhoods, and inconsistencies in park quality. These insights revealed spatial and design gaps requiring policy attention.

• Development of Evidence-Based Recommendations

Based on the synthesized outcomes, a set of evidence-based recommendations was formulated to enhance park infrastructure, promote equitable distribution, and encourage community participation in park planning and management. These recommendations align with Vision 2030’s Quality-of-Life objectives and support the creation of inclusive, sustainable, and accessible urban environments.

4. Results

GIS analysis in Figure 3 reveals that community parks in Al-Khobar are concentrated in central and north-eastern neighbourhoods, while the southern, southwestern, and northwestern areas are underserved. Buffer mapping shows that residents in central districts generally live within a 500 m walk of a park, whereas residents in peripheral areas have significant gaps in park access.

Figure 3. Community parks distribution and proximity in Al-Khobar City.

As shown in Figure 4A,B, the total park area and per capita POS access further highlight inequities, with some neighbourhoods lacking sufficient recreational infrastructure. Densely populated central-eastern areas benefit from greater park provision, while peripheral and less densely populated neighbourhoods face limited access. This mismatch between population density and park availability indicates a need for more equitable green space planning.

Figure 4. (A) Population Count in Al-Khobar neighbourhoods. (B) Parks count in each neighbourhood.

As shown in Figure 5A,B, the analysis indicates a clear spatial and experiential inequity: northwestern residents enjoy higher park access, while peripheral residents face limited opportunities. To address these disparities, urban planning should prioritize new parks in underserved areas, improve pedestrian connectivity, enhance park facilities, and integrate GIS-informed planning with user data to align green space provision with population needs. Such strategies would promote equitable access, increased park engagement, and improved physical, mental, and social well-being, supporting Saudi Vision 2030 and SDG 11 on sustainable cities.

Figure 5. (A) Area of community parks in Al-Khobar City. (B) Per Capita access to community parks in Al-Khobar City.

Access to parks is a critical determinant of environmental justice, public health, and overall urban liability. In accordance with local urban planning benchmarks recommending a minimum of 5 square meters of green space per person, this study evaluates the distribution, adequacy, and accessibility of public parks across neighbourhoods in Al-Khobar City, Saudi Arabia. Table 4 presents a detailed neighbourhood-level evaluation of park provision in Al-Khobar City, benchmarked against the local planning standard of 5 m² of green space per capita. The results reveal significant disparities in the availability and distribution of park space, highlighting both well-served and critically underserved areas.

Table 4. Neighbourhoods Assessment.

Neighborhood Name	Population	Required Park Area in (m2)	Total Parks Area in (m2)	Access to Parks for Per Person	Percentage of Parks Coverage	Meets the Standards of 5 m2 for Each Person?	How Much m2 Needed to Achieve the Goal
National Guard	10,199	50,995	42,157.39	4.13	82.67%	Nearly Met	8837.61
Al-Danah Al-Janobiah	3119	15,595	149,474.6	47.92	958.48%	Goal Met	-
Aldhahran	16,275	81,375	144,565.9	8.88	177.65%	Goal Met	-
Al-Qusoor	15,281	76,405	81,289.79	5.32	106.39%	Goal Met	-
University	13,767	68,835	146,994	10.68	213.55%	Goal Met	-
King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals	7846	39,230	64,534.07	8.23	164.50%	Goal Met	-
Al-Qashlah	5533	27,665	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	27,665.00
Al-Danah Al-Shamaliah	14,499	72,495	60,248.66	4.16	83.11%	Nearly Met	12,246.34
Al-Doha Al-Shamaliah	8140	40,700	92,359.27	11.35	226.93%	Goal Met	-
Al-Doha Al-Janobiah	20,962	104,810	149,544.6	7.13	142.68%	Goal Met	-
G34	1514	7570	12,828.27	8.47	169.46%	Goal Met	-
G45	8022	40,110	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	40,110.00
Al-Kurnaish	4819	24,095	45,857.62	9.52	190.32%	Goal Met	-
Al-Aqrabeyah	37,515	187,575	30,936.71	0.82	16.49%	Very Low Access	156,638.29
Ishbiliya	394	1970	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	1970.00
Ar Rakah Al-Janobiah	34,153	170,765	27,620.8	0.81	16.17%	Very Low Access	143,144.20
Al-Jawharah	12,968	64,840	2617.33	0.20	4.04%	Very Low Access	62,222.67
Al-Bustan	2116	10,580	8854.39	4.18	83.69%	Nearly Met	1725.61
Al-Khuzama	17,790	88,950	12,832.62	0.72	14.43%	Very Low Access	76,117.38
Al-Hada	1662	8310	13,023.1	7.84	156.72%	Goal Met	-
Al-Raja	435	2175	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	2175.00
Al-Olaya	24,331	121,655	25,533.93	1.05	20.99%	Low Access	96,121.07
As Sahil	704	3520	31,551.2	44.82	896.34%	Goal Met	-
Al-Sufn	284	1420	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	1420.00
Al-Khour	247	1235	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	1235.00
Al-Kawthar	2398	11,990	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	11,990.00
At Taawun	3822	19,110	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	19,110.00
Al-Hezam Al-Thahabi	7560	37,800	66,386.95	8.78	175.63%	Goal Met	-
Al-Sawari	20,855	104,275	6679.99	0.32	6.41%	Very Low Access	97,595.01
Al-Maha	48	240	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	240.00
Al-Yarmuk	9767	48,835	16,502.13	1.69	33.79%	Low Access	32,332.87
Qurtubah	15,555	77,775	31,018.95	1.99	39.88%	Low Access	46,756.05
North Khobar	85,350	426,750	89,364.34	1.05	20.94%	Low Access	337,385.66
Al-Lulu	5761	28,805	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	28,805.00
Al-Bandariyah	9986	49,930	14,164.5	1.42	28.37%	Low Access	35,765.50
Al-Hezam Al-Akhdar	5408	27,040	14,402.42	2.66	53.26%	Medium Access	12,637.58
Ar Rawabi	10,190	50,950	5325.18	0.52	10.45%	Very Low Access	45,624.82
Al-Aqiq	3234	16,170	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	16,170.00
Al-Andalus	4767	23,835	3662.99	0.77	15.37%	Very Low Access	20,172.01
Al-Amwaj	8355	41,775	4146.02	0.50	9.92%	Very Low Access	37,628.98
Al-Tahliyah	20,726	103,630	23,209.8	1.12	22.40%	Low Access	80,420.20
Al-Murjan	998	4990	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	4990.00
Madinat Al-Umaal	29,795	148,975	81,800.91	2.75	54.91%	Medium Access	67,174.09
Al-Shara	18,016	90,080	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	90,080.00
Al-Bahar	449	2245	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	2245.00
Entertainment Services	316	1580	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	1580.00
West of Al-Aziziyah	1185	5925	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	5925.00
Air Base	18,779	93,895	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	93,895.00
Al-Buhairah	7548	37,740	36,226.73	4.80	95.99%	Nearly Met	1513.27
Al-Thaqbah	113,753	568,765	14,990.35	0.13	2.64%	Very Low Access	553,774.65
South Khobar	80,083	400,415	1457.59	0.02	0.36%	Very Low Access	398,957.41
Ibn Sina	4031	20,155	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	20,155.00
Al-Hamra	10,574	52,870	2583.46	0.24	4.89%	Very Low Access	50,286.54
Al-Jesr	20,300	101,500	41,564.4	2.05	40.95%	Medium Access	59,935.60
Sina’iyat Al-Thaqbah	7978	39,890	4266.99	0.53	10.70%	Very Low Access	35,623.01
Sina’iyat Al-Fawazeyah	635	3175	0	0.00	0.00%	No Access	3175.00
Iskan	11,534	57,670	180,477	15.65	312.95%	Goal Met

Note: The green-to-red background colors in the fifth column of Table 4. Access to Parks per Person were used as visual indicators of whether each neighborhood meets the minimum park-area standard. Green indicates that the goal has been achieved, whereas red indicates that the goal has not been achieved.

Several neighbourhoods substantially exceed the 5 m² per capita requirement, such as Al-Danah Al-Janobiah (47.92 m²/person), Al-Doha Al-Shamaliah (11.35 m²/person), and As Sahil (44.82 m²/person). These areas demonstrate a surplus of green space, in some cases exceeding the required standard by 200–800%. While such oversupply indicates good environmental quality, it also points to an uneven allocation of resources, with parkland concentrated in specific districts.

Neighbourhoods such as Al-Qusoor (5.32 m²/person), Al-Bustan (4.18 m²/person), and National Guard (4.13 m²/person) either meet or nearly meet the benchmark. These locations show relatively balanced provision, suggesting that moderate improvements in park size or accessibility could enable them to fully comply with the standard.

A striking finding is that many neighbourhoods fall far below the required threshold. For instance, Al-Thaqbah (0.13 m²/person), South Khobar (0.02 m²/person), and Al-Sawari (0.32 m²/person) demonstrate extremely low levels of green space per capita, amounting to less than 1% of the recommended requirement. Furthermore, several neighbourhoods such as Al-Qashlah, G45, Ishbiliya, Al-Raja, Al-Sufn, Al-Khour, and Al-Kawthar—report having no public park areas, indicating a complete lack of access. These deficiencies highlight urgent needs for intervention in terms of park establishment and equitable distribution.

The disparities observed across neighbourhoods have critical implications for environmental justice and quality of life. While certain areas enjoy abundant green resources, large sections of the population remain underserved, particularly in high-density neighbourhoods such as Al-Aqrabeyah and Ar Rakah Al-Janubiah. The unequal provision exacerbates social inequalities, as access to green space is closely linked to public health, social cohesion, and urban resilience.

The results demonstrate a fragmented green space system in Al-Khobar City. The existence of neighbourhoods with substantial surpluses alongside others with severe deficits indicates a lack of coordinated planning. To align with Saudi Vision 2030 goals, a more balanced approach is required—one that redistributes green resources, prioritizes underserved communities, and ensures equitable access for all residents.

Table 4 highlights differences in the feasibility of achieving the recommended 5 m² per capita green space standard across neighbourhoods. In several high-density districts such as Al-Thuqbah, Al-Aqrabeyah, and parts of Al-Khobar Al-Shamaliyah the urban fabric is already highly compact, with limited vacant plots or redevelopment opportunities. In these areas, achieving the target may be challenging without major land acquisition or reallocation of built-up areas. In contrast, lower-density peripheral neighbourhoods such as Al-Safa and Al-Jisr contain larger undeveloped parcels and more flexible land-use conditions, making it more feasible to introduce new community parks or expand existing ones. Although this study did not perform a full land-use/land-cover analysis, this contextual interpretation helps clarify where the goal is realistically attainable and where alternative planning strategies such as pocket parks, linear green corridors, or enhanced shared open spaces may be more appropriate.

Table 5 summarizes the demographic profile of the sample (N = 300). Understanding the demographic profile of park users is essential for evaluating the inclusivity and effectiveness of community park design in Al-Khobar. The collected data, presented in Table 5, demonstrate a diverse sample across gender, age, and park accessibility. The gender composition of the survey respondents reveals a moderately imbalanced but still representative sample. Of the total responses collected, 60% identified as male and 40% as female.

Table 5. Demographic analysis of users’ gender, age, and accessibility within a 5 min walk to a park.

Variable	Options	N	%
Gender	Female	179	59.67%
	Male	121	40.33%
Age Group	18–25	45	15%
	26–35	90	25%
	36–45	75	30%
	46–55	60	20%
	56 and above	30	10%
Park accessibility within a 5 min walk from home	Yes	126	42%
	No	174	58%

Regarding age, respondents spanned five age groups, with the highest representation in the 26–35 age (90 respondents), followed by the 36–45 (75 respondents) and 46–55 (60 respondents) groups. The 18–25 and 56 and above categories were less represented, with (45 and 30 respondents), respectively. This age distribution indicates that middle-aged adults constitute the primary user demographic of public parks in Al-Khobar, likely reflecting their active family and recreational roles. The presence of younger and older respondents, albeit in smaller proportions, underscores the need for parks to accommodate users across multiple generations. Only 42% of respondents reported having a park within a 5 min walk from their residence, while a majority (58%) indicated otherwise. This finding raises significant concerns about the poor spatial distribution and equitable accessibility of parks in Al-Khobar. The results suggest a potential mismatch between the city’s green infrastructure planning and residents’ actual spatial needs.

As illustrated in Table 6, approximately 29% of respondents reported visiting their neighbourhood park several times a week, followed by 25% who visit once a week, and 16% who are daily users. These frequent users represent 70% of the population, suggesting that parks play a recurring role in the routine activities and urban experience of a portion of the population. Conversely, 20% of respondents stated they rarely visit their neighbourhood parks, and 10% indicated they had never visited them. This cumulative 30% non- or infrequent usage points to a potential barrier, such as poor accessibility.

Table 6. Frequency of Park Visits.

Variable	Options	N	%
Frequency of park visit	Daily	48	16%
	Several times a week	87	29%
	Once a week	75	25%
	Rarely	60	20%
	Never visited	30	10%

In this study, the survey instrument’s reliability was assessed, yielding a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.80, indicating high internal consistency among the items. Table 7 presents the (ANOVA) results, which examined whether overall satisfaction significantly differed among user groups based on gender, age, and frequency of park visits. The ANOVA results indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in overall satisfaction between the different groups within each variable, as all p-values exceed the 0.05 significance threshold. For gender, males reported a mean score of 3.57, while females rated satisfaction slightly higher at 3.77 (F = 1.045, p = 0.393). Similarly, across age groups, mean satisfaction scores ranged from 3.49 (56+) to 3.87 (46–55), with an F-value of 0.971 and p = 0.567, suggesting negligible variation between age cohorts. Frequency of park visits also showed no significant effect (F = 1.217, p = 0.115), although satisfaction tended to be higher among users who visit parks once a week (3.82) compared to those who rarely or never visit (3.33–3.61).

Table 7. ANOVA test results to compare the mean overall satisfaction (out of 5.0) between the different groups within each independent.

Variable	Group	Overall Satisfaction	F	Sig.
Gender	Male	3.57	1.045	0.393
	Female	3.77
Age Group	18–25	3.70	0.971	0.567
	26–35	3.64
	36–45	3.64
	46–55	3.87
	56+	3.49
Frequency of Park Visit	Never Visited	3.33	1.217	0.115
	Rarely	3.61
	Once a Week	3.82
	Several times a week	3.74
	Daily	3.69

To determine the relative contribution of each dimension and indicator to overall satisfaction, the study employed the Relative Importance Index (RII). This method ranks indicators based on the perceived importance assigned by users, effectively serving as an implicit weighting system. The results are categorized under four primary dimensions (Table 8): Proximity, Accessibility, Availability, and Distribution. Among all indicators, “Safety of access routes” received the highest mean score (4.32, STDEV.S = 1.05) with RII of 0.86, ranking first overall and within its dimension. This was followed by “Access to a park within a five- to ten-minute walking distance” (mean = 4.12, STDEV.S = 1.16, RII of 0.82), which ranked second overall and first in the Proximity dimension. In contrast, “Provision of at least one playground per 20 residential blocks” had the lowest mean score (3.02, STDEV.S = 1.37 and RII of 0.60), highlighting a significant gap in the availability of recreational infrastructure. These findings highlight the relative strengths in proximity and safety, while identifying areas that require improvement, particularly in equitable distribution and inclusive access.

Table 8. Users’ Satisfaction with Al-Khobar Community Parks Dimensions.

	Dimensions	Indicators	Mean	STDEV.S	Rank Among All	Rank in Dimension	RII
1	Proximity	1.1. Access to a park within five- to ten-minute walking distance from residence	4.12	1.16	2	1	0.82
		1.2. Walking radius of 400 to 800 square meters	3.54	1.34	7	2	0.71
2	Accessibility	2.1. Easy and nearby access to nature for a large number of people	3.77	1.28	6	3	0.75
		2.2. Parks are centrally located within communities	4.02	1.13	3	2	0.80
		2.3. Inclusive access regardless of physical ability or background	3.13	1.35	10	4	0.63
		2.4. Safety of access routes	4.32	1.05	1	1	0.86
3	Availability	3.1. Parks occupy no more than 33% of the total site area	4.02	1.14	4	1	0.80
		3.2. Each neighbourhood must have at least one community park or access to a nearby park within a defined walking distance.	3.48	1.32	8	2	0.70
		3.3. Provision of at least one playground per 20 residential blocks	3.02	1.37	11	3	0.60
4	Distribution	4.1. Equitable distribution of parks by providing at least 5 m2 of green space per capita	3.30	1.36	9	2	0.66
		4.2. A minimum of 5000 square meters of parkland is required per neighbourhood	3.92	1.25	5	1	0.78

As shown in Figure 6, based on the mean scores for each community park design dimension (Proximity, Accessibility, Availability, and Distribution), the analysis indicates that the highest-rated dimension is Proximity, indicating that residents are generally satisfied with how close community parks are to their homes. It suggests that parks in Al-Khobar are relatively well-located in terms of walking distance and physical reachability. Very close to Proximity, Accessibility also scored highly, reflecting a positive perception of how easily different user groups—regardless of ability—can access park spaces. Factors such as route safety and centrality seem to be well addressed. Moderately rated. The distribution shows that while parks are present, green spaces may be unevenly distributed across neighbourhoods. Some areas may lack sufficient per capita green space or large parklands. Availability is the lowest-rated dimension, indicating concerns about the quantity and functionality of available park features—such as playgrounds, sufficient land allocation, or compliance with planning standards. Overall mean of users’ satisfaction across all dimensions is 3.69.

Figure 6. Overall weighted mean of Users’ Satisfaction with Al-Khobar Community Parks Dimensions.

The study reveals several significant associations (Table 9). The strongest positive correlation was observed between “Inclusive access regardless of physical ability or background” and “Provision of at least one playground per 20 residential blocks” (r = 0.77), indicating a close relationship between inclusive design and the availability of diverse recreational facilities. Likewise, “Walking radius of 400 to 800 square meters” was highly correlated with both “Provision of at least one playground per 20 blocks” (r = 0.72) and “Inclusive access” (r = 0.72), suggesting that shorter walking distances support equitable and inclusive use of parks. Moderate correlations were also found between “Equitable distribution of parks” and multiple indicators such as “Provision of playgrounds” (r = 0.70) and “Inclusive access” (r = 0.72), highlighting the interconnected nature of spatial equity and inclusive accessibility. In contrast, weak negative correlations observed between “a minimum of 5000 square meters of parkland is required per neighbourhood” (indicator 4.2) and several accessibility and proximity indicators (such as 2.1, 2.2, and 1.1) reveal important spatial dynamics in Al-Khobar’s urban form. Larger parks are predominantly located in peripheral or low-density districts, where land availability is greater, but pedestrian connectivity is limited. Although these large parks increase the total amount of green space, they do not necessarily improve walkable access for nearby residents. This spatial pattern explains the negative correlations (e.g., r = −0.09 between 4.2 and 2.1; r = −0.09 between 4.2 and 2.2; r = −0.04 between 4.2 and 1.1). In contrast, centrally located neighbourhoods contain smaller but more frequent parks that are embedded within residential blocks and therefore achieve higher accessibility and proximity scores. These relationships highlight that spatial equity is not driven by park size alone, but by the distribution of parks within walkable distances and by the connectivity of surrounding street networks.

Table 9. Pearson correlation matrix showing the relationships among key design indicators of community parks in Al-Khobar City across the dimensions.

	1.1.	1.2.	2.1.	2.2.	2.3.	2.4.	3.1.	3.2.	3.3.	4.1.	4.2.
1.1.	1.00
1.2.	0.48	1.00
2.1.	0.39	0.55	1.00
2.2.	0.42	0.54	0.40	1.00
2.3.	0.53	0.72	0.62	0.53	1.00
2.4.	0.40	0.55	0.45	0.47	0.55	1.00
3.1.	0.12	0.12	0.02	0.07	0.08	0.03	1.00
3.2.	−0.04	−0.14	−0.10	−0.02	−0.09	−0.10	−0.07	1.00
3.3.	0.53	0.72	0.63	0.58	0.77	0.58	0.08	−0.08	1.00
4.1.	0.49	0.69	0.54	0.51	0.72	0.47	0.11	−0.05	0.70	1.00
4.2.	−0.04	−0.08	−0.09	−0.09	−0.11	0.02	−0.12	−0.01	−0.10	−0.10	1.00

5. Discussion

Community parks in Saudi Arabia are influenced by sociocultural and climatic factors. It is known that the main function of community parks in KSA is primarily as family-oriented social spaces, reflecting deep-rooted cultural values that emphasize group activities, privacy, and safe environments for women and children. These preferences influence spatial configurations, such as the provision of shaded seating clusters, family gathering zones, and visually open layouts that ensure comfort and social visibility. Gender-related expectations also play a role: well-lit walkways, clear sightlines, and designated family-only areas contribute to perceived safety and encourage broader usage. These socio-cultural factors shape both visitation patterns and satisfaction levels, particularly favouring parks that offer privacy, shade, and family-friendly amenities. As such, culturally responsive design is essential in ensuring equitable and meaningful access to parks across different neighbourhoods Park usage in Al-Khobar is strongly influenced by the city’s climatic seasonality. Al-Khobar experiences extremely hot and humid summers, with temperatures frequently exceeding 42 °C, which substantially limits daytime outdoor activity, particularly between May and November. During these months, park visitation often shifts to evening hours or declines considerably. In contrast, the cooler winter and early spring months encourage higher levels of pedestrian activity, longer park visits, and more frequent use. These seasonal fluctuations have important implications for spatial accessibility and user satisfaction, suggesting that climatic constraints play a central role in shaping how residents engage with community parks throughout the year.

The integration of GIS-based spatial analysis with user perceptions provides a deeper understanding of not only where spatial inequities occur in Al-Khobar, but also why they emerge. The GIS results show that neighbourhoods with low accessibility and limited service coverage are often high-density areas characterized by fragmented land uses, limited vacant parcels, and automobile-oriented street patterns. Such land-use constraints restrict the provision of medium and large parks, leading municipalities to concentrate major parks in peripheral districts where land availability is greater. This planning pattern produces a structural mismatch: low-density fringe areas achieve high per capita green space but low walkability, while centrally located areas benefit from proximity but lack sufficient total park area. These spatial mismatches reinforce uneven access across socioeconomic groups and highlight the need for a more balanced, equity-oriented approach to park provision.

Survey results reinforce these spatial findings by showing that residents prioritize dimensions such as safety of access routes, proximity, and inclusive entry, all of which align with Currie’s park design framework that emphasizes accessibility, safety, and adaptability. High RII values for these indicators suggest that the parks most valued by residents are those that integrate well with their daily movement patterns and provide safe, shaded, and culturally responsive environments. Similarly, the results support Malek’s satisfaction dimensions, particularly those related to comfort, safety, and aesthetic quality. The misalignment between where parks are located and what users value most helps explain the lower satisfaction scores in several neighbourhoods despite the presence of formally designated park areas.

These spatial inequities have broader implications for community cohesion, public health, and social equity. Limited access to nearby parks restricts opportunities for daily physical activity, disproportionately affecting vulnerable groups such as children, women, and older adults. Lack of green space within walking distance also reduces opportunities for informal social interaction, which is a critical component of neighbourhood cohesion in family-oriented communities. On a citywide scale, these disparities may contribute to uneven health outcomes, reduced environmental quality. Addressing these issues, therefore, requires not only increasing the number of parks but also ensuring that their distribution aligns with population density, connectivity, and the cultural expectations of users.

By connecting spatial patterns with user perceptions and theoretical frameworks, this study demonstrates that achieving equitable access to parks in Al-Khobar requires context-specific interventions that combine land-use planning, connectivity improvements, and culturally sensitive design. The findings support the principles of Vision 2030’s Quality of Life Program, which views parks as essential infrastructure for health, wellbeing, and social inclusion. They also highlight the importance of micro-parks and linear green corridors in high-density districts where traditional large parks may not be feasible. Strengthening the green space network through equitable, walkable, and culturally aligned interventions can significantly enhance urban resilience, public health outcomes, and social equity in fast-growing Saudi cities.

Although over half of the users reported overall satisfaction, a significant portion remained neutral or dissatisfied, and more than a third indicated they would neither revisit nor recommend their neighbourhood parks. Additionally, the analysis found a weak correlation between large park size and accessibility, suggesting that bigger parks do not necessarily enhance user satisfaction or reach. To address these issues, urban planners may prioritize underserved neighbourhoods by introducing small- and medium-sized parks, improving walkability through safer, more inclusive access routes, and enhancing infrastructure to serve a broader range of users, including children, the elderly, and persons with disabilities.

The analysis reveals several common weaknesses in the current state of community parks in Al-Khobar City. Spatial inequity is a major concern, with many neighbourhoods failing to meet the recommended 5 m² of green space per capita, and over 20 neighbourhoods having no access to parks at all. This indicates a substantial deficiency in park distribution, particularly in high-density areas such as Al-Thaqbah and South Khobar.

Survey data support the spatial findings. Only 42% of respondents have a park within a five-minute walk. Frequent park usage is high (70% visit daily, weekly, or several times per week), but 30% of residents rarely or never use parks, likely reflecting accessibility gaps. Satisfaction ratings show that Proximity and Accessibility are high, while Availability and Distribution are rated lower.

Evaluation of park features reveals that residents are generally satisfied with Proximity and Accessibility, consistent with the GIS findings indicating that parks are well located and safe in central areas. However, Availability and Distribution received lower ratings, highlighting deficiencies in the total park area and equitable green space allocation—particularly in underserved peripheral neighbourhoods. This alignment between GIS-based inequities and user-reported dissatisfaction emphasizes that spatial disparities have tangible impacts on perceived quality and usability of parks.

The combined analysis illustrates a clear spatial and experiential inequity in Al-Khobar’s community parks:

• Central and northeastern residents enjoy both higher park availability and greater user satisfaction.
• Peripheral residents face limited access, lower per capita green space, and reduced engagement with parks.
• Accessibility strongly influences usage frequency, suggesting that strategically placed parks could enhance participation and well-being.

This integrated insight underscores the need for targeted urban planning interventions:

• Equitable Park Allocation: Prioritize new parks in underserved southern, southwestern, and northern neighbourhoods.
• Connectivity and Walkability: Improve pedestrian infrastructure and green corridors to extend the reach of existing parks.
• Enhanced Facilities: Address deficiencies in playgrounds, recreational amenities, and park size to meet residents’ needs.
• Data-Driven Planning: Integrate GIS spatial analysis with demographic and behavioural survey data to optimize park placement relative to population density and usage patterns.

The spatial inequities identified in Al-Khobar are closely aligned with national priorities outlined in Saudi Arabia’s Quality of Life Program (Vision 2030), which aims to increase the availability, accessibility, and equitable distribution of public open spaces. The results of this study underscore areas where current provisions fall short of these goals, particularly in high-density neighbourhoods with limited park access. The findings also resonate with the objectives of the Saudi Green Initiative (SGI), a flagship national initiative focused on expanding vegetation cover, enhancing walkability, and creating more inclusive green environments across major Saudi cities. By quantifying per capita deficits, identifying underserved neighbourhoods, and revealing patterns of spatial inequality, the GIS–survey framework presented in this study offers actionable evidence to support the municipal implementation of these larger national strategies.

In addition, access to gardens and public parks in the Eastern Province has been steadily increasing over recent years, indicating sustained government efforts to expand public open space and move closer to Vision 2030 targets. These trends are consistent with our findings, which reveal that although progress is being made, significant gaps remain at the neighbourhood level. Figure 7 illustrates the access rate to gardens and parks in the Eastern Province, highlighting the broader context within which Al-Khobar’s spatial disparities should be understood.

Figure 7. Access to Gardens and Parks (m²) in the Eastern Province. Source: (GASTAT).

6. Conclusions

This study offers several key contributions to the assessment of community park equity in rapidly urbanizing Saudi cities. It introduces a spatial–perceptual evaluation framework that integrates GIS-based indicators with user-perceived satisfaction, providing a more holistic understanding of accessibility and equity than spatial or survey methods alone. The research generates detailed neighbourhood-level equity maps and satisfaction profiles, offering actionable evidence to support municipal planning decisions under Vision 2030’s Quality of Life Program.

This study highlights significant disparities in the provision, distribution, and accessibility of community parks in Al-Khobar City of Saudi Arabia. While some neighbourhoods exceed the recommended green space standards, many areas remain underserved, with several communities lacking any accessible park facilities and infrastructure. These inequities reveal a fragmented approach to urban green space planning, resulting in uneven access to recreational and ecological benefits across the city.

The findings underscore the need for more equitable strategies in public open space provision. Enhancing park availability in underserved neighbourhoods, improving pedestrian connectivity, and ensuring balanced distribution are critical steps toward creating more inclusive and liveable urban environments. Such measures would align with national priorities, including Saudi Vision 2030 and the Quality of Life Program, by promoting social well-being and environmental sustainability.

Future studies may focus on developing a comprehensive national framework or set of design guidelines for sustainable urban community parks that align with Saudi Arabia’s unique cultural, social, and climatic contexts. The lack of localized planning strategies has led to disparities in accessibility, quality, and community relevance of public open spaces. Therefore, future research should prioritize the development of context-specific design principles that incorporate traditional cultural values, promote thermal comfort in hot, arid climates, and address diverse community needs. Such a framework would support national initiatives like Saudi Arabian Vision 2030 and the Quality of Life Program by fostering equitable, inclusive, and climate-responsive urban environments. Although the survey period (January–July) captures part of seasonal variation, long-term seasonal patterns were not fully assessed and represent an important direction for future work. This study applied an unweighted aggregation of indicators when evaluating overall satisfaction. While this approach avoids imposing subjective assumptions about the relative importance of proximity, availability, accessibility, and distribution, we acknowledge that different user groups may value these dimensions differently. Future studies could integrate explicit weighting schemes such as Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), Principal Component Analysis (PCA).

Although a detailed land use/land cover (LULC) analysis was not conducted as part of this study, the feasibility of achieving the minimum access to public spaces requirement can be partially understood by considering general land-use patterns across neighbourhoods. High-density districts with compact residential blocks and limited vacant land face significant constraints in creating new parks, whereas peripheral neighbourhoods with larger undeveloped parcels offer greater potential for expanding public spaces. Incorporating LULC-based feasibility mapping in future research would provide deeper insights into spatial opportunities for park development and further strengthen planning recommendations.