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Gels, Volume 11, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 48 articles

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14 pages, 1602 KiB  
Article
Dual-Function Hydrogel Coating on Silicone Urinary Catheters with Durable Antibacterial Property and Lubricity
by Shuai Gao, Wei Zeng, Zheng Liu, Fanjun Zhang, Yunfeng Zhang, Xi Liu, Dimeng Wu and Yunbing Wang
Gels 2025, 11(2), 128; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020128 - 10 Feb 2025
Abstract
Silicone urinary catheters are broadly employed in medical practice. However, they are susceptible to inducing catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) due to bacterial adherence to the catheter’s surface, and they exhibit a high friction coefficient, which can greatly affect their effectiveness and functionality. [...] Read more.
Silicone urinary catheters are broadly employed in medical practice. However, they are susceptible to inducing catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs) due to bacterial adherence to the catheter’s surface, and they exhibit a high friction coefficient, which can greatly affect their effectiveness and functionality. Thus, the development of a silicone urinary catheter with antibacterial properties and lubricity is in strong demand. We hereby developed a poly(vinyl acetate) carrier coating to load chlorhexidine acetate and applied a hydrogel coating primarily composed of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) and poly(ethylene glycol) diacrylate (PEGDA), which was then coated onto the silicone urinary catheters and cured through a thermal curing process and could provide lubricity. Subsequently, we analyzed its surface characteristics and assessed the antibacterial property, lubricity, cytotoxicity, and potential for vaginal irritation. The findings from the Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR), scanning electron microscope (SEM), water contact angle (WCA), inhibition zone measurements, and friction coefficient analysis confirmed the successful modification of the silicone urinary catheter. Additionally, the outcomes from the cytotoxicity and vaginal irritation assessments demonstrated that the dual-function hydrogel coating-coated silicone urinary catheters exhibit outstanding biocompatibility. This study illustrates that the prepared silicone urinary catheters possess durable antibacterial properties and lubricity, which thus gives them broad clinical application prospects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel-Based Materials for Biomedical Engineering (2nd Edition))
14 pages, 1660 KiB  
Article
Stress Overshoot Analysis in Flow Start-Up Tests: Aging Time Fitting of the Different Gel-Based Drilling Fluids
by Luis H. Quitian-Ardila, Raquel S. Schimicoscki, Yamid J. Garcia-Blanco, Eduardo M. Germer, Vladimir Ballesteros-Ballesteros, Oriana Palma Calabokis and Admilson T. Franco
Gels 2025, 11(2), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020127 - 10 Feb 2025
Viewed by 141
Abstract
Drilling fluids are essential for maintaining cutting suspension during drilling, exhibiting gel-like behavior at rest and liquid-like behavior under shearing. These fluids display shear-thinning behavior, yield stress, and thixotropy. This study investigates the impact of aging time on stress overshoot and the deformation [...] Read more.
Drilling fluids are essential for maintaining cutting suspension during drilling, exhibiting gel-like behavior at rest and liquid-like behavior under shearing. These fluids display shear-thinning behavior, yield stress, and thixotropy. This study investigates the impact of aging time on stress overshoot and the deformation required to disrupt the gelled structure of water-based and synthetic-based drilling fluids. Flow start-up tests were conducted using a rotational rheometer at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure. The results show that aging time significantly affects both stress overshoot and the shear strain needed to disrupt the gelled structure. Longer aging times reduce the strain required to break the structure, indicating a correlation between aging time and stress overshoot. The fitted model strongly correlates with the experimental data, providing valuable insights for the planning and simulation of offshore drilling wells, primarily in well stability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels in the Oil Field)
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25 pages, 2157 KiB  
Review
Hydrogels for Peripheral Nerve Repair: Emerging Materials and Therapeutic Applications
by Oana Taisescu, Venera Cristina Dinescu, Alexandra Daniela Rotaru-Zavaleanu, Andrei Gresita and Michael Hadjiargyrou
Gels 2025, 11(2), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020126 - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 262
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injuries pose a significant clinical challenge due to the complex biological processes involved in nerve repair and their limited regenerative capacity. Despite advances in surgical techniques, conventional treatments, such as nerve autografts, are faced with limitations like donor site morbidity and [...] Read more.
Peripheral nerve injuries pose a significant clinical challenge due to the complex biological processes involved in nerve repair and their limited regenerative capacity. Despite advances in surgical techniques, conventional treatments, such as nerve autografts, are faced with limitations like donor site morbidity and inconsistent functional outcomes. As such, there is a growing interest in new, novel, and innovative strategies to enhance nerve regeneration. Tissue engineering/regenerative medicine and its use of biomaterials is an emerging example of an innovative strategy. Within the realm of tissue engineering, functionalized hydrogels have gained considerable attention due to their ability to mimic the extracellular matrix, support cell growth and differentiation, and even deliver bioactive molecules that can promote nerve repair. These hydrogels can be engineered to incorporate growth factors, bioactive peptides, and stem cells, creating a conducive microenvironment for cellular growth and axonal regeneration. Recent advancements in materials as well as cell biology have led to the development of sophisticated hydrogel systems, that not only provide structural support, but also actively modulate inflammation, promote cell recruitment, and stimulate neurogenesis. This review explores the potential of functionalized hydrogels for peripheral nerve repair, highlighting their composition, biofunctionalization, and mechanisms of action. A comprehensive analysis of preclinical studies provides insights into the efficacy of these hydrogels in promoting axonal growth, neuronal survival, nerve regeneration, and, ultimately, functional recovery. Thus, this review aims to illuminate the promise of functionalized hydrogels as a transformative tool in the field of peripheral nerve regeneration, bridging the gap between biological complexity and clinical feasibility. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Hydrogel for Wound Healing and Tissue Repair)
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25 pages, 1564 KiB  
Review
Advancing Gel Systems with Natural Extracts: Antioxidant, Antimicrobial Applications, and Sustainable Innovations
by Arthitaya Kawee-ai
Gels 2025, 11(2), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020125 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 205
Abstract
The integration of natural extracts into gel systems has emerged as a transformative approach to enhance functional properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and therapeutic effects. This review underscores the remarkable potential of natural extract-enriched gels, which effectively combine sustainability with improved functionality. These bioactive [...] Read more.
The integration of natural extracts into gel systems has emerged as a transformative approach to enhance functional properties, including antioxidant, antimicrobial, and therapeutic effects. This review underscores the remarkable potential of natural extract-enriched gels, which effectively combine sustainability with improved functionality. These bioactive compounds, sourced from plants and animals, encompass polyphenols, flavonoids, essential oils, chitosan, proteins, and polysaccharides. They provide an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic additives and find applications across various sectors, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and food packaging. Despite their promise, challenges remain, such as the variability in natural extract composition, the stability of bioactive compounds, and scalability for industrial use. To address these issues, innovative strategies like nanoencapsulation, responsive hydrogels, and AI-driven optimization have demonstrated significant progress. Additionally, emerging technologies, such as 3D printing and adherence to circular economy principles, further enhance the versatility, efficiency, and sustainability of these systems. By integrating these advanced tools and methodologies, gel systems enriched with natural extracts are well-positioned to meet contemporary consumer and industrial demands for multifunctional and eco-friendly products. These innovations not only improve performance but also align with global sustainability goals, setting the stage for widespread adoption and continued development in various fields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Bioactive Compounds and Gels)
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33 pages, 2933 KiB  
Review
Nanogels—Innovative Drug Carriers for Overcoming Biological Membranes
by Lyubomira Radeva and Krassimira Yoncheva
Gels 2025, 11(2), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020124 - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 303
Abstract
Nanogels are promising drug delivery systems since they possess undeniable advantages such as high loading capacity for hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, stabilization of sensitive drugs, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The present review summarizes experimental studies related to carriers, drug loading, and membrane transport of [...] Read more.
Nanogels are promising drug delivery systems since they possess undeniable advantages such as high loading capacity for hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs, stabilization of sensitive drugs, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. The present review summarizes experimental studies related to carriers, drug loading, and membrane transport of nanogels. In particular, the review discusses the properties, advantages, and limitations of polymeric carriers with respect to the behavior of the prepared nanogels in in vivo conditions. The potential of nanogel systems for encapsulation of hydrophilic or hydrophobic drugs and the mechanisms of loading and drug release are also emphasized. Moreover, the challenges related to nanogel transport through the barriers presented in parenteral, oral, ocular, nasal, and dermal routes of administration are also considered. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels in Medicine and Pharmacological Therapies (2nd Edition))
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36 pages, 3554 KiB  
Review
Advancements in Wound Dressing Materials: Highlighting Recent Progress in Hydrogels, Foams, and Antimicrobial Dressings
by Adina Alberts, Dana-Ionela Tudorache, Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu and Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu
Gels 2025, 11(2), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020123 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 400
Abstract
Recent advancements in wound dressing materials have significantly improved acute and chronic wound management by addressing challenges such as infection control, moisture balance, and enhanced healing. Important progress has been made, especially with hydrogels, foams, and antimicrobial materials for creating optimized dressings. Hydrogels [...] Read more.
Recent advancements in wound dressing materials have significantly improved acute and chronic wound management by addressing challenges such as infection control, moisture balance, and enhanced healing. Important progress has been made, especially with hydrogels, foams, and antimicrobial materials for creating optimized dressings. Hydrogels are known for maintaining optimal moisture levels, while foam dressings are excellent exudate absorbents. Meanwhile, antimicrobial dressing incorporates various antimicrobial agents to reduce infection risks. These dressing options reduce wound healing time while focusing on customized patient needs. Therefore, this review highlights the newest research materials and prototypes for wound healing applications, emphasizing their particular benefits and clinical importance. Innovations such as stimuli-responsive hydrogels and hybrid bioengineered composites are discussed in relation to their enhanced properties, including responsiveness to pH, temperature, glucose, or enzymes and drug delivery precision. Moreover, ongoing clinical trials have been included, demonstrating the potential of emerging solutions to be soon translated from the laboratory to clinical settings. By discussing interdisciplinary approaches that integrate advanced materials, nanotechnology, and biological insights, this work provides a contemporary framework for patient-centric, efficient wound care strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Gels for Wound Treatment)
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13 pages, 3985 KiB  
Article
From Single-Chain Polymeric Nanoparticles to Interpenetrating Polymer Network Organogels: A One-Pot Fabrication Approach
by Selin Daglar, Demet Karaca Balta, Binnur Aydogan Temel and Gokhan Temel
Gels 2025, 11(2), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020122 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 340
Abstract
In this study, we developed a novel one-pot synthesis method to fabricate well-defined single-chain polymeric nanoparticles (SCNPs) integrated with interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) systems. The synthesis process involved an initial intramolecular crosslinking of poly(methyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) to form SCNP followed by [...] Read more.
In this study, we developed a novel one-pot synthesis method to fabricate well-defined single-chain polymeric nanoparticles (SCNPs) integrated with interpenetrating polymer network (IPN) systems. The synthesis process involved an initial intramolecular crosslinking of poly(methyl methacrylate-co-glycidyl methacrylate) to form SCNP followed by intermolecular crosslinking to produce single-chain nanogel (SCNG) structures. In addition, the achieved single-chain polymeric nanoparticle was subsequently incorporated into an IPN structure through urethane bond formation and a Diels–Alder click reaction involving furfuryl methacrylate (FMA) and bismaleimide (BMI). The thermal properties, swelling behaviors, and morphologies of the resulting SCNP-IPN systems were investigated. This work presents a novel strategy that integrates the single-chain folding concept with IPN systems, providing a promising platform for the development of robust and functional polymeric materials with potential applications in advanced materials science. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Gel Chemistry and Physics)
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22 pages, 3752 KiB  
Review
Characteristics of Polybenzoxazine Aerogels as Thermal Insulation and Flame-Retardant Materials
by Shakila Parveen Asrafali, Thirukumaran Periyasamy and Jaewoong Lee
Gels 2025, 11(2), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020121 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 473
Abstract
Polybenzoxazine-based aerogels are a unique class of materials that combine the desirable properties of aerogels—such as low density, high porosity, and excellent thermal insulation—with the outstanding characteristics of polybenzoxazines—such as high thermal stability, low water absorption, and superior mechanical strength. Polybenzoxazines are a [...] Read more.
Polybenzoxazine-based aerogels are a unique class of materials that combine the desirable properties of aerogels—such as low density, high porosity, and excellent thermal insulation—with the outstanding characteristics of polybenzoxazines—such as high thermal stability, low water absorption, and superior mechanical strength. Polybenzoxazines are a type of thermosetting polymer derived from benzoxazine monomers. Several features of polybenzoxazines can be retained within the aerogels synthesized through them. The excellent thermal resistance of polybenzoxazines, which can withstand temperatures above 200–300 °C, makes their aerogel able to withstand extreme thermal environments. The inherent structure of polybenzoxazines, rich in aromatic rings and nitrogen and oxygen atoms, imparts flame-retardant property. Their highly crosslinked structure provides excellent resistance to solvents, acids, and bases. Above all, through their molecular design flexibility, their physical, mechanical, and thermal properties can be tubed to suit specific applications. In this review, the synthesis of polybenzoxazine aerogels, including various steps such as monomer synthesis, gel formation, solvent exchange and drying, and finally curing are discussed in detail. The application of these aerogels in thermal insulation and flame-retardant materials is given importance. The challenges and future prospects of further enhancing their properties and expanding their utility are also summarized. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Aerogels (2nd Edition))
21 pages, 9573 KiB  
Article
Focused Ultrasound-Mediated Release of Bone Morphogenetic Protein 2 from Hydrogels for Bone Regeneration
by Tyus J. Yeingst, Angelica M. Helton, Ferdousi S. Rawnaque, Julien H. Arrizabalaga, Dino J. Ravnic, Julianna C. Simon and Daniel J. Hayes
Gels 2025, 11(2), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020120 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 449
Abstract
An ultrasound-responsive hydrogel system was developed that provides on-demand release when stimulated by focused ultrasound (fUS). Diels–Alder cycloadducts crosslinked polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels and underwent a retrograde Diels–Alder reaction when exposed to fUS. Four-arm and eight-arm furan-based Diels–Alder hydrogel compositions were used to [...] Read more.
An ultrasound-responsive hydrogel system was developed that provides on-demand release when stimulated by focused ultrasound (fUS). Diels–Alder cycloadducts crosslinked polyethylene glycol (PEG) hydrogels and underwent a retrograde Diels–Alder reaction when exposed to fUS. Four-arm and eight-arm furan-based Diels–Alder hydrogel compositions were used to evaluate the link between the crosslinking density and the fUS-induced release and retention rates. PEG crosslinked with glutaraldehyde was also used as a non-Diels–Alder control hydrogel. By increasing the exposure time and the amplitude of fUS, the Diels–Alder-based hydrogels exhibited a correlative increase in the release of the entrapped BMP-2. Real-time B-mode imaging was used during fUS to visualize the on-demand degradation of the crosslinking matrix for the release of BMP-2. When monitored with a thermocouple, the increase in temperature observed was minimal in the area surrounding the sample during fUS stimulation, indicating fUS to be an external stimulus which could be used safely for spatiotemporally controlled release. PEG hydrogels were characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, thermogravimetric analysis, and compression testing. PEG degradation byproducts were evaluated for cytocompatibility in vitro. Overall, this study demonstrated that Diels–Alder-based PEG hydrogels can encapsulate BMP-2, undergo a retrograde reaction when externally stimulated with fUS, and release active BMP-2 to induce differentiation in human mesenchymal stem cells. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel for Tissue Regeneration (2nd Edition))
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19 pages, 56650 KiB  
Article
Amine-Functionalized Gellan Gum-Based Hydrogel Loaded with Adipose Stem Cell-Derived Small Extracellular Vesicles: An In Vitro Proof of Concept for Enhancing Diabetic Foot Ulcer Healing
by Laura Tomasello, Mattia Biondo, Giuseppina Biscari, Luigi Di Rosa, Fabio Salvatore Palumbo, Calogero Fiorica, Giovanna Pitarresi, Sonya Vasto, Giuseppe Pizzolanti and Giorgio Arnaldi
Gels 2025, 11(2), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020119 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 358
Abstract
Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are chronic wounds and a common complication of diabetes. A promising strategy in the treatment of DFUs involves the use of stem cell derivatives, such as small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which can enhance cell proliferation and reduce inflammation while [...] Read more.
Diabetic foot ulcers (DFUs) are chronic wounds and a common complication of diabetes. A promising strategy in the treatment of DFUs involves the use of stem cell derivatives, such as small extracellular vesicles (sEVs), which can enhance cell proliferation and reduce inflammation while avoiding immunogenic responses. In this study, we evaluated the ability of adipose mesenchymal stem cell- (ASC)-derived sEVs to enhance the proliferation of human fibroblasts, which play a crucial role in wound regenerative processes. To mimic the inflammatory environment of DFUs, fibroblasts were cultured into the gellan gum (GG) modified with ethylenediamine (EDA) hydrogel scaffolds loaded with ASC-derived sEVs, under pro-inflammatory cytokines. Our comparative analysis demonstrated that sEVs loaded in GG-EDA hydrogel improved fibroblast viability in pro-inflamed conditions while retaining the anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties of their cells of origin. By modulating the gene expression profile of fibroblasts to promote cell proliferation, wound healing and re-epithelialization, our system presents a promising therapeutic strategy for DFU healing. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Excellence in Bioactive Gels)
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18 pages, 18347 KiB  
Article
Amidated and Aminated PMSSO-Hydrogels as a Promising Enzyme-Sensitive Vehicle for Antianemic Drugs
by Polina Orlova, Ivan Meshkov, Sergei Sharikov, Vsevolod Frolov, Anna Skuredina, Pavel Markov, Zoya Bobyleva, Grigorii Lakienko, Egor Latipov, Ilya Kolmogorov, Sergey Vasiliev, Alexandra Kalinina, Aziz Muzafarov and Irina Le-Deygen
Gels 2025, 11(2), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020118 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 285
Abstract
In this study, we report the synthesis and characterization of aminated poly(methyl silsesquioxane)-based hydrogels ((AP/MS)SO-hydrogels) as potential enzyme-sensitive vehicles for antianemic drugs. The hydrogels were synthesized via sol–gel polymerization and functionalized with amine groups. Characterization techniques included Congo red assay, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface [...] Read more.
In this study, we report the synthesis and characterization of aminated poly(methyl silsesquioxane)-based hydrogels ((AP/MS)SO-hydrogels) as potential enzyme-sensitive vehicles for antianemic drugs. The hydrogels were synthesized via sol–gel polymerization and functionalized with amine groups. Characterization techniques included Congo red assay, Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis, scanning electron microscopy, elemental analysis, 13C NMR, 29Si NMR, and ATR-FTIR spectroscopy and microscopy of hydrogels. The sorption of ferric chloride and ferrous D-gluconate, as well as complexes of ferrous D-gluconate with HPCD, was evaluated. Crosslinking of the gel with bifunctional agents was performed to create a new amide enzyme-sensitive bond, followed by infrared characterization of the crosslinked product. Trypsin-mediated degradation studies demonstrated the sensitivity of the hydrogel to enzymatic cleavage under model conditions. Iron release experiments in gastric and intestine-simulating media confirmed prolonged release. Overall, our findings suggest that aminated PMSSO-hydrogels hold promise as versatile and biocompatible carriers for targeted delivery of antianemic agents, warranting further exploration in preclinical and clinical applications. Full article
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13 pages, 5055 KiB  
Article
Band-Gap Engineering of High-Entropy Fluorite Metal Oxide Nanoparticles Facilitated by Pr3+ Incorporation by Gel Combustion Synthesis
by Mariappan Anandkumar, Kannan Pidugu Kesavan, Shanmugavel Sudarsan, Olga Vladimirovna Zaitseva, Ahmad Ostovari Moghaddam, Daria Valerevna Iarushina and Evgeny Alekseevich Trofimov
Gels 2025, 11(2), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020117 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 334
Abstract
Tailoring the bandgap of a material is necessary for improving its optical properties. Here, the optical bandgap of high-entropy oxide Ce0.2Gd0.2Sm0.2Y0.2Zr0.2O2-δ (HEO) nanoparticles was modified using Pr3+. Various concentrations of [...] Read more.
Tailoring the bandgap of a material is necessary for improving its optical properties. Here, the optical bandgap of high-entropy oxide Ce0.2Gd0.2Sm0.2Y0.2Zr0.2O2-δ (HEO) nanoparticles was modified using Pr3+. Various concentrations of Pr3+ (x = 0, 0.01, 0.02, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1, 0.15) were incorporated into the host high-entropy oxide using a gel combustion synthesis. After the gel combustion step, the powders were heat-treated at various temperatures (650 °C, 800 °C, 950 °C) for 2 h. The obtained Pr3+-incorporated HEO powders were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and UV–visible spectroscopy. The results indicate that, when the samples are calcined at 950 °C, a single-phase cubic fluorite structure is obtained without any phase separation or impurity. The optical absorbance red-shifts to higher wavelengths when the concentration of Pr3+ is increased. This reduces the bandgap of the material from 3.15 eV to 1.87 eV for Pr3+ concentrations of x = 0 (HEO-0) and x = 0.15 (HEO-6), respectively. The obtained HEOs can be suitable candidates for photocatalytic applications due to their absorbance in the visible region. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Metal Gels: Synthesis and Applications)
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20 pages, 7032 KiB  
Article
Encapsulation of Lactoferrin in Calcium-Alginate Microparticles and Its Release Therefrom Under Neutral and Mild Acidic Conditions: Synthesis, Characterization and Mathematical Modeling
by Teresa Paduano, Simona Zuppolini, Rosa Vitiello, Mauro Zarrelli, Riccardo Tesser and Anna Borriello
Gels 2025, 11(2), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020116 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 270
Abstract
Bio-based polymeric stimuli-responsive materials have attracted increasing interest, especially in the pharmacological and nutraceutical fields. These materials mainly consist of macromolecules capable of conformational and chemical changes in response to external signals. One active molecule mostly used in bio-related areas is lactoferrin (Lf), [...] Read more.
Bio-based polymeric stimuli-responsive materials have attracted increasing interest, especially in the pharmacological and nutraceutical fields. These materials mainly consist of macromolecules capable of conformational and chemical changes in response to external signals. One active molecule mostly used in bio-related areas is lactoferrin (Lf), which is attracting attention due to its beneficial effects (antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-carcinogenic) on the human body. Since pH or temperature in the human body can promote Lf degradation, encapsulation in a suitable system is required. A valid solution is to encapsulate the Lf in a polysaccharidic matrix such as alginate (ALG) thanks to its biocompatibility and easy gelation with bivalent cations. This work aims to encapsulate iron-depleted Lf in alginate gel microspheres for stability improvement by ionic cross-linking with Ca2+ ions. The obtained particles were characterized in terms of structure, thermal stability, and morphology, and their swelling capability was determined. Release studies were carried out on the freeze-dried particles to investigate the effect of neutral pH 7 and acidic pH 5. At last, the optimization of the loaded system was completed by developing a mathematical model able to predict the swelling behavior of the carrier particle and the subsequent Lf kinetic release over time. Full article
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19 pages, 4816 KiB  
Article
Construction of a ‘Simple, Fast and Accurate’ Evaluation Method for Profile Control and Plugging Effect of Gel Plugging Agent Based on Simulations
by Zengbao Wang, Junjie Jiang, Weian Huang, Yuwei Gan and Yingrui Bai
Gels 2025, 11(2), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020115 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 269
Abstract
At present, the evaluation perspective of the gel plugging agent assessment method is incomprehensive, due to which the experimental results deviate from the field data. By analyzing the current indoor evaluation methods and the factors controlling the sealing capability of gel plugging agents, [...] Read more.
At present, the evaluation perspective of the gel plugging agent assessment method is incomprehensive, due to which the experimental results deviate from the field data. By analyzing the current indoor evaluation methods and the factors controlling the sealing capability of gel plugging agents, an experimental device and method for evaluating the blocking effect of oilfield gel plugging agents has been designed. In contrast to traditional assessment methods, the proposed approach offers advantages such as simple operation, rapid experimentation, and accurate results. The experimental results show that gels selected using conventional methods are inconsistent with the results of plugging displacement tests. This discrepancy can be attributed to the fact that these methods focus solely on cohesive strength while neglecting adhesive strength. Considering that the evaluation perspective of conventional methods is relatively limited, an evaluation method for the sealing effect of the plugging agent was developed. This method comprehensively incorporates factors such as cohesion strength, adhesion capability, shear resistance, and the long-term anti-dehydration performance of the gel. The evaluation results of the method were consistent with the results of the plugging displacement experiments. The newly constructed method defines Γ as the comprehensive evaluation parameter for the gel. A new experimental system with a comprehensive evaluation index (Γ) of 8.97 Pa2 was selected. After the profile control of the system, the effluent ratio of the high and low permeability layers reached 1:9, and its erosion resistance was greater than 20 PV. Meanwhile, the profile control effect was also stable. Through verification based on field data, the injection pressure of the system optimized by the proposed method was found to be 2.5 times higher than that of the original system. Meanwhile, the plugging validity period was >2 times of the original system. The test results were consistent with the plugging capability evaluation index. In summary, the performance evaluation method of the designed gel plugging agent was reasonable in principle and the results were accurate and reliable. Therefore, it is considered to be of guiding significance for the selection of efficient profile control plugging agents in oilfields. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Gels for Enhanced Oil Recovery)
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23 pages, 4235 KiB  
Article
Innovative Processing and Sterilization Techniques to Unlock the Potential of Silk Sericin for Biomedical Applications
by Anabela Veiga, Rosa Ana Ramírez-Jiménez, Víctor Santos-Rosales, Carlos A. García-González, Maria Rosa Aguilar, Luis Rojo and Ana L. Oliveira
Gels 2025, 11(2), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020114 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 367
Abstract
Silk sericin (SS), a by-product of the textile industry, has gained significant attention for its biomedical potential due to its biocompatibility and regenerative potential. However, the literature lacks information on SS processing methods and the resulting physicochemical properties. This study represents the first [...] Read more.
Silk sericin (SS), a by-product of the textile industry, has gained significant attention for its biomedical potential due to its biocompatibility and regenerative potential. However, the literature lacks information on SS processing methods and the resulting physicochemical properties. This study represents the first step in protocol optimization and standardization. In the present work, different processing techniques were studied and compared on SS extracted from boiling water: evaporation, rotary evaporation, lyophilization, and dialysis, which presented a recovery yield of approximately 27–32%. The goal was to find the most promising process to concentrate extracted SS solutions, and to ensure that the SS structure was highly preserved. As a result, a new cryo-lyophilization methodology was proposed. The proposed method allows for the preservation of the amorphous structure, which offers significant advantages including complete dissolution in water and PBS, an increase in storage stability, and the possibility of scaling-up, making it highly suitable for industrial and biomedical applications. The second part of the work focused on addressing another challenge in SS processing: efficient and non-destructive sterilization. Supercritical CO2 (scCO2) has been gaining momentum in the last years for sterilizing sensitive biopolymers and biological materials due to its non-toxicity and mild processing conditions. Thus, scCO2 technology was validated as a mild technique for the terminal sterilization of SS. In this way, it was possible to engineer a sequential cryo-lyophilization/scCO2 sterilization process which was able to preserve the original properties of this natural silk protein. Overall, we have valorized SS into a sterile, off-the-shelf, bioactive, and water-soluble material, with the potential to be used in the biomedical, pharmaceutical, or cosmetic industries. Full article
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25 pages, 5607 KiB  
Article
Hydroxypropyl Cellulose Polymers as Efficient Emulsion Stabilizers: The Effect of Molecular Weight and Overlap Concentration
by Diana Cholakova, Krastina Tsvetkova, Viara Yordanova, Kristina Rusanova, Nikolai Denkov and Slavka Tcholakova
Gels 2025, 11(2), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020113 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 434
Abstract
Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is a non-digestible water-soluble polysaccharide used in various food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications. In the current study, the aqueous solutions of six HPC grades, with molecular mass ranging from 40 to 870 kDa, were characterized with respect to their precipitation [...] Read more.
Hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) is a non-digestible water-soluble polysaccharide used in various food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical applications. In the current study, the aqueous solutions of six HPC grades, with molecular mass ranging from 40 to 870 kDa, were characterized with respect to their precipitation temperatures, interfacial tensions (IFTs), rheological properties and emulsifying and stabilization ability in palm (PO) and sunflower (SFO) oil emulsions. The main conclusions from the obtained results are as follows: (1) Emulsion drop size follows a master curve as a function of HPC concentration for all studied polymers, indicating that polymer molecular mass and solution viscosity have a secondary effect, while the primary effect is the fraction of surface-active molecules, estimated to be around 1–2% for all polymers. (2) Stable emulsions were obtained only with HPC polymers with Mw ≥ 400 kDa at concentrations approximately 3.5 times higher than the critical overlap concentration, c*. At PO concentrations beyond 40 wt. % or when the temperature was 25 °C, these emulsions appeared as highly viscous liquids or non-flowing gels. (3) HPC polymers with Mw < 90 kDa were unable to form stable emulsions, as the surface-active molecules cannot provide steric stabilization even at c ≳ 4–5 c*, resulting in drop creaming and coalescence during storage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Gels: Gelling Process and Innovative Applications)
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16 pages, 5415 KiB  
Article
Chiral Supramolecular Hydrogels Regulating Both Osteoblastogenesis and Osteoclastogenesis
by Beibei Wu, Xiaoqiu Dou, Sravan Baddi, Fengli Gao, Changli Zhao and Chuanliang Feng
Gels 2025, 11(2), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020112 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 289
Abstract
Osteoporosis, a chronic bone disorder, poses a global threat to the health of millions of individuals. The disruption of bone homeostasis is the fundamental cause of osteoporosis. Currently, clinical drugs are employed to promote bone formation via enhancing osteogenesis and/or reduce bone loss [...] Read more.
Osteoporosis, a chronic bone disorder, poses a global threat to the health of millions of individuals. The disruption of bone homeostasis is the fundamental cause of osteoporosis. Currently, clinical drugs are employed to promote bone formation via enhancing osteogenesis and/or reduce bone loss via inhibiting osteoclastogenesis. However, it is difficult for the current drugs to simultaneously address the osteoblastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis issues associated with osteoporosis. Hence, L/D-phenylalanine derivatives (L/DPF), combined with Mg2+ ions, are employed to assemble into chiral supramolecular hydrogels which facilitate osteocyte activity and inhibit osteoclast function. LPF_Mg hydrogels and DPF_Mg hydrogels demonstrate the opposite supramolecular chirality. Specifically, LPF_Mg hydrogels and DPF_Mg hydrogels are composed of left-handed (M-type) helical nanofibers and right-handed (P-type) helical nanofibers, respectively. The hydrogen bonding and π–π stacking interactions are crucial in the process of hydrogel formation. The chiral left-handed nanofibrous DPF_Mg hydrogels significantly promote osteogenic differentiation of MC3T3 cells and inhibit osteoclast differentiation of RAW267.4 cells, thereby demonstrating substantial potential for applications in improving skeletal health. These findings provide a promising novel perspective on the application of chiral functional materials for osteoporosis therapy. Full article
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31 pages, 12584 KiB  
Article
Potential of Encapsulated Bovine Colostrum in Powder-Based Formulations for Facial Clay, Peel-Off Gel, and Sleeping Gel Masks
by Pornpansa Chuesomboon, Thomas Rades and Wantida Chaiyana
Gels 2025, 11(2), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020111 - 4 Feb 2025
Viewed by 723
Abstract
Bovine colostrum is a bioactive compound with potential in cosmetic applications but has a limited shelf life. This study aimed to develop an effective encapsulation system for bovine colostrum using the complex coacervation method and incorporate it into powder formulations for facial masks. [...] Read more.
Bovine colostrum is a bioactive compound with potential in cosmetic applications but has a limited shelf life. This study aimed to develop an effective encapsulation system for bovine colostrum using the complex coacervation method and incorporate it into powder formulations for facial masks. The research explored various gelatin-to-gum Arabic ratios to optimize the physical and chemical stability, encapsulation efficiency, and loading capacity of the encapsulated bovine colostrum (EBC). The EBC was further incorporated into powder formulations for clay masks, peel-off gel masks, and sleeping gel masks. The optimal gelatin-to-gum Arabic ratio was found to be 2:1, yielding the highest entrapment efficiency (66.6 ± 3.3% w/w) and loading capacity (67.6 ± 3.4% w/w) of bovine colostrum. For clay masks, the most effective powder blend incorporating EBC enhanced the moisture content, water solubility, and hygroscopicity, without affecting the drying time (9.7 ± 0.6 min). Additionally, peel-off gel masks incorporating EBC significantly reduced water activity and improved moisture content and hygroscopicity, while the drying time decreased from 44.3 ± 0.6 to 25.0 ± 1.7 min. For sleeping gel masks, the formulation with EBC increased water activity, while other parameters remained stable. In conclusion, the EBC with enhanced stability was effectively integrated into various powders for facial mask formulations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural Bioactive Compounds and Gels)
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28 pages, 4115 KiB  
Review
Bioprinting-By-Design of Hydrogel-Based Biomaterials for In Situ Skin Tissue Engineering
by Alisa Douglas, Yufei Chen, Margarita Elloso, Adam Levschuk and Marc G. Jeschke
Gels 2025, 11(2), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020110 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 492
Abstract
Burns are one of the most common trauma injuries worldwide and have detrimental effects on the entire body. However, the current standard of care is autologous split thickness skin grafts (STSGs), which induces additional injuries to the patient. Therefore, the development of alternative [...] Read more.
Burns are one of the most common trauma injuries worldwide and have detrimental effects on the entire body. However, the current standard of care is autologous split thickness skin grafts (STSGs), which induces additional injuries to the patient. Therefore, the development of alternative treatments to replace traditional STSGs is critical, and bioprinting could be the future of burn care. Specifically, in situ bioprinting offers several advantages in clinical applications compared to conventional in vitro bioprinting, primarily due to its ability to deposit bioink directly onto the wound. This review provides an in-depth discussion of the aspects involved in in situ bioprinting for skin regeneration, including crosslinking mechanisms, properties of natural and synthetic hydrogel-based bioinks, various in situ bioprinting methods, and the clinical translation of in situ bioprinting. The current limitations of in situ bioprinting is the ideal combination of bioink and printing mechanism to allow multi-material dispensing or to produce well-orchestrated constructs in a timely manner in clinical settings. However, extensive ongoing research is focused on addressing these challenges, and they do not diminish the significant potential of in situ bioprinting for skin regeneration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel-Based Scaffolds with a Focus on Medical Use (2nd Edition))
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13 pages, 1746 KiB  
Article
Physical and Structural Properties of Chitosan–Squid Gelatin Hydrogels
by Uriel Ramírez-Campas, Santiago P. Aubourg, Wilfrido Torres-Arreola, Maribel Plascencia-Jatomea and Josafat Marina Ezquerra-Brauer
Gels 2025, 11(2), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020109 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 396
Abstract
The development of functional hydrogels is currently receiving great attention. In this study, a squid by-product, gelatin (SG)–acetic acid solution, was added to a commercial chitosan (CH)–acetic acid solution to develop an antioxidant hydrogel. The CH–SG mass ratios evaluated were 1:0, 2:1, and [...] Read more.
The development of functional hydrogels is currently receiving great attention. In this study, a squid by-product, gelatin (SG)–acetic acid solution, was added to a commercial chitosan (CH)–acetic acid solution to develop an antioxidant hydrogel. The CH–SG mass ratios evaluated were 1:0, 2:1, and 1:2. Glutaraldehyde was used as cross linker. The effects of the SG addition to the hydrogel on different properties (physical in general, stability in aqueous media at pH 7.2, swelling, textural profile, and antioxidant) were evaluated. The interaction of CH and SG was established by scanning electron microscope microscopy (SEM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR). As a result, the addition of SG decreased the resistance to flow, hardness, chewiness, and stability, but increased the springiness, resilience, and antioxidant properties of CH hydrogels. The SEM analysis revealed that the CH-GS hydrogel showed a relatively more porous structure. FTIR and NMR analyses suggested a good compatibility of the components due mainly to an increased hydrogen bond formation. The present results suggest that CH could establish a valuable interaction with SG, so that a new hydrogel with enhanced textural and antioxidant properties would be produced, which would enable its potential application in biomedical and food industries. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modification of Gels in Creating New Food Products)
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12 pages, 3505 KiB  
Article
Stomatitis Healing via Hydrogels Comprising Proline, Carboxyvinyl Polymer, and Water
by Raichi Hanaki, Koji Harada, Yoshihiro Sasaki, Michiaki Matsumoto and Yoshiro Tahara
Gels 2025, 11(2), 108; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020108 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 417
Abstract
Chemotherapy using anticancer agents and radiotherapy of cancers frequently induce the development of stomatitis as a side effect. In the present study, hydrogels for effective stomatitis healing under anticancer drug administration were developed using three components, namely proline, carboxyvinyl polymer, and water (denoted [...] Read more.
Chemotherapy using anticancer agents and radiotherapy of cancers frequently induce the development of stomatitis as a side effect. In the present study, hydrogels for effective stomatitis healing under anticancer drug administration were developed using three components, namely proline, carboxyvinyl polymer, and water (denoted proline gels). Characterization including tilting, Fourier transform infrared spectra, and viscoelasticity measurements indicated that proline gels with proline concentrations over 300 μmol/g could retain water on the tongue of mice. The degradation and release behavior of proline gels in serological environments were evaluated, revealing that proline gels were degraded by serological salt concentrations, and the cumulative amount of proline released from proline gels depended on the concentration of proline in the gel. Proline gels were applied to the stomatitis area on the tongue of mice under anticancer drug administration, with subsequent reduction in the stomatitis area and regeneration of the mucosal epithelium layer, demonstrating effective stomatitis healing by proline gels with proline concentrations over 500 μmol/g. Other control samples including the carboxyvinyl polymer or proline alone did not reduce the stomatitis area in model mice. These results suggested that the proline gel is promising for the mucosa regeneration of anticancer drug-induced stomatitis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel for Tissue Regeneration (2nd Edition))
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14 pages, 12024 KiB  
Article
Evaluation of Bacterial Cellulose/Alginate-Based Hydrogel and Frog Skin Dressings in Equine Skin Wound Healing
by Rita C. Campebell, Andressa B. Oliveira, Jéssyca L. A. Fagundes, Beatriz N. A. Fortes, Henrique C. Veado, Isabel L. Macedo, Bruno S. L. Dallago, Hernane S. Barud, José Adorno, Pablo A. V. Salvador, Paulo S. Santos and Márcio B. Castro
Gels 2025, 11(2), 107; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020107 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 470
Abstract
This study evaluates the wound-healing process in horses following the application of two treatment modalities: bacterial cellulose hydrogel with alginate (BCAW) and frog skin (FSW) dressings on experimentally induced skin wounds. Throughout the experiment, no clinical abnormalities were noted in the horses, although [...] Read more.
This study evaluates the wound-healing process in horses following the application of two treatment modalities: bacterial cellulose hydrogel with alginate (BCAW) and frog skin (FSW) dressings on experimentally induced skin wounds. Throughout the experiment, no clinical abnormalities were noted in the horses, although initial wound assessments indicated edema and sensitivity. Local hemorrhage was observed in some cases on Day 0, with granulation tissue formation evident by Day 14. Epithelialization began around Day 14 but did not reach complete healing in any group by Day 28. The analysis showed no significant differences in skin wound area or wound contraction rates among the treatment groups compared to control wounds (CWs) over the evaluation periods. Histopathological evaluations also indicated no significant differences in inflammatory responses or healing markers, such as fibroblast proliferation and neovascularization in skin wounds across groups. Despite expectations based on prior research in other species, the treatments with BCAW and FSW did not demonstrate substantial pro-healing effects in horses with induced skin wounds. These findings underscore the complexity of equine wound healing and suggest further investigation is needed to optimize treatment strategies in this species and enhance the translational potential for human clinical applications. Full article
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26 pages, 2822 KiB  
Article
Investigation of a Thermoresponsive In Situ Hydrogel Loaded with Nanotriphala: Implications for Antioxidant, Anti-Inflammatory, and Antimicrobial Therapy in Nasal Disorders
by Rungsinee Phongpradist, Chuda Chittasupho, Sudarshan Singh, Julalak Chorachoo Ontong, Sarin Tadtong, Puriputt Akachaipaibul, Charatda Punvittayagul, Kriangkrai Thongkorn, Pornngarm Dejkriengkraikul, Jutamas Jiaranaikulwanitch, Sunee Chansakaow and Darunee Hongwiset
Gels 2025, 11(2), 106; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020106 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 627
Abstract
Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in chronic nasal disorders, contributing to inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired mucosal function, highlighting the need for targeted therapies. Recent advancements in nasal drug delivery systems have expanded their applications for treating respiratory and inflammatory conditions. Among [...] Read more.
Oxidative stress plays a crucial role in chronic nasal disorders, contributing to inflammation, tissue damage, and impaired mucosal function, highlighting the need for targeted therapies. Recent advancements in nasal drug delivery systems have expanded their applications for treating respiratory and inflammatory conditions. Among these, hydrogel-based systems offer prolonged release of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs), enhancing therapeutic efficacy and reducing dosing frequency. This study initially evaluates the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic properties of Nanotriphala, followed by its incorporation into a thermoresponsive in situ hydrogel system, which was subsequently developed and characterized as a novel formulation. Nanotriphala exhibited >90% cell viability and significantly reduced nitric oxide (NO) levels by 40.55 µg/mL at 250 µg/mL. The hydrogel was characterized by key parameters, including viscosity, gelling time, pH, gelling temperature, texture analysis, and ex vivo spreadability. Stability was assessed under various conditions, and mutagenicity and antimutagenicity were evaluated using the Ames test. Results showed that the hydrogel gelled at 34 °C, exhibited good spreadability (10.25 ± 0.28 cm), a viscosity of 227 ± 22 cP, and maintained a pH of 5.75 ± 0.01, with optimal hardness and adhesiveness suitable for nasal application. It demonstrated antimicrobial activity against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and S. epidermidis at minimal bactericidal concentrations (MBCs) of 32, 2, 4, and 8 µg/mL, respectively, with low mutagenicity (mutagenic index < 2) and strong antimutagenic activity (>60%). The gallic acid content was 0.5796 ± 0.0218 µg/100 mL. Stability studies confirmed optimal storage at 4 °C. These findings suggest that in situ hydrogel loaded with Nanotriphala is a promising nasal drug delivery system for managing oxidative stress and related inflammatory conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogel for Sustained Delivery of Therapeutic Agents (2nd Edition))
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21 pages, 4941 KiB  
Article
Ophthalmic In Situ Nanocomposite Gel for Delivery of a Hydrophobic Antioxidant
by Marta Slavkova, Christina Voycheva, Teodora Popova, Borislav Tzankov, Diana Tzankova, Ivanka Spassova, Daniela Kovacheva, Denitsa Stefanova, Virginia Tzankova and Krassimira Yoncheva
Gels 2025, 11(2), 105; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020105 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 546
Abstract
The topical administration of in situ hydrogels for ocular pathologies is a promising application strategy for providing high effectiveness and patient compliance. Curcumin, a natural polyphenol, possesses all the prerequisites for successful therapy of ophthalmic diseases, but unfortunately its physicochemical properties hurdle the [...] Read more.
The topical administration of in situ hydrogels for ocular pathologies is a promising application strategy for providing high effectiveness and patient compliance. Curcumin, a natural polyphenol, possesses all the prerequisites for successful therapy of ophthalmic diseases, but unfortunately its physicochemical properties hurdle the practical use. Applying a composite in situ thermoresponsive hydrogel formulation embedded with polymer nanoparticles is a potent strategy to overcome all the identified drawbacks. In the present work we prepared uniform spherical nanoparticles (296.4 ± 3.1 nm) efficiently loaded with curcumin (EE% 82.5 ± 2.3%) based on the biocompatible and biodegradable poly-(lactic-co-glycolic acid). They were thoroughly physicochemically characterized in terms of FTIR, SEM, TGA, and DLS, in vitro release following Fickian diffusion (45.62 ± 2.37%), and stability over 6 months. Their lack of cytotoxicity was demonstrated in vitro on HaCaT cell lines, and the potential for antioxidant protection was also outlined, starting from concentrations as low as 0.1 µM and reaching 41% protection at 5 µM. An in situ thermoresponsive hydrogel (17% w/v poloxamer 407 and 0.1% Carbopol) with suitable properties for ophthalmic application was optimized with respect to gelation temperature (31.40 ± 0.36 °C), gelling time (8.99 ± 0.28 s) upon tears dilution, and gel erosion (90.75 ± 4.06%). Upon curcumin-loaded nanoparticle embedding, the in situ hydrogels demonstrated appropriate pseudoplastic behavior and viscosity at 35 °C (2129 ± 24 Pa∙s), 6-fold increase in the permeation, and prolonged release over 6 h. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Composite Hydrogels for Biomedical Applications)
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31 pages, 3323 KiB  
Article
Plant-Derived B-CGT Hydrogel Accelerates Diabetic Wound Healing Through Multitarget Modulation of Inflammation, Angiogenesis, and Tissue Remodeling
by Fei Ran, Kailang Mu, Lingli Zhou, Leqiang Peng, Gang Liu, Yuchen Liu, Yuxin Pang, Guo Feng, Changmao Guo, Tianjian Wang and Qiumei Luo
Gels 2025, 11(2), 104; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020104 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 304
Abstract
Diabetic wound healing presents significant challenges due to impaired angiogenesis, chronic inflammation, and cellular dysfunction. Building on previous research, this study further explores the potential of a plant-derived glucosyloxybenzyl 2-isobutylmalates (B-CGT) hydrogel in promoting diabetic wound healing. Network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses [...] Read more.
Diabetic wound healing presents significant challenges due to impaired angiogenesis, chronic inflammation, and cellular dysfunction. Building on previous research, this study further explores the potential of a plant-derived glucosyloxybenzyl 2-isobutylmalates (B-CGT) hydrogel in promoting diabetic wound healing. Network pharmacology and molecular docking analyses suggest that B-CGT may regulate key mechanisms, such as apoptosis, inflammation, and matrix remodeling, through core targets including SIRT1, CASP8, and MMP8. In vivo studies further demonstrated that B-CGT hydrogel significantly accelerated wound closure in diabetic mice, enhanced angiogenesis, promoted collagen deposition, and achieved immune balance by modulating macrophage polarization, thereby shifting the inflammatory environment toward a repair state. Moreover, B-CGT hydrogel significantly improved the wound microenvironment by upregulating VEGF expression and exerting antioxidant effects. By combining theoretical predictions with experimental validation, this study elucidates the multi-target synergistic regulatory mechanisms of B-CGT hydrogel. These findings provide new research directions for addressing immune imbalance and angiogenesis defects in diabetic wound healing and lay a scientific foundation for the optimization and application of chronic wound treatment strategies. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Gels for Wound Treatment)
17 pages, 2887 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Properties of Glycerohydrogels Based on Silicon Tetraglycerolate, Chitosan Hydrochloride and Glucomannan
by Sergei L. Shmakov, Olga S. Ushakova, Marina A. Kalinicheva and Anna B. Shipovskaya
Gels 2025, 11(2), 103; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020103 - 2 Feb 2025
Viewed by 348
Abstract
Glycerohydrogels based on silicon glycerolate, chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are widely studied for use in biomedical applications. In line with the general trend of replacing synthetic polymers with natural ones in such compositions, it would be of interest to replace PVA [...] Read more.
Glycerohydrogels based on silicon glycerolate, chitosan (CS) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) are widely studied for use in biomedical applications. In line with the general trend of replacing synthetic polymers with natural ones in such compositions, it would be of interest to replace PVA with the polysaccharide glucomannan (GM), as well as to introduce functional additives to impart the desired properties, including gelation time, to the final hydrogel. In this work, a comprehensive study of the preparation conditions and properties of glycerohydrogels based on silicon tetraglycerolate, chitosan hydrochloride (CS·HCl) and GM was carried out. Viscometry was used to assess the conformational state of CS·HCl and GM macromolecules, and their associates in solution before gelation. Gelation was studied using the vessel inversion method. The mucoadhesive and the dermoadhesive properties of the glycerohydrogels obtained were assessed using the tearing off method from the model substrates simulating mucous and dermal tissues. The conformational state of the individual polymers and their mixed associates in solution before gelation was estimated; the intrinsic viscosity and the hydrodynamic radius of the macromolecular coils were calculated. The influence of various factors (addition of ε-aminocaproic and hydrochloric acids, sodium chloride, hydroxide and tetraborate to vary the acidity and ionic strength of the medium, as well as temperature) and the molecular weight of chitosan on the gelation time was studied. The gelation time achieved was less than 2 min, which is promising in practical terms, i.e., for creating liquid plasters. Our best samples are not inferior to the commercial preparation “Metrogyl Denta”® in terms of tearing force during mucoadhesion and dermoadhesion at short gelation times. Thus, the glycerohydrogels synthesized by us and based on silicon tetraglycerolate, CS·HCl and GM could find usage in new biopharmaceutical and biomedical applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chemical Properties and Application of Gel Materials)
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24 pages, 5166 KiB  
Article
Flocculation Mechanism and Microscopic Statics Analysis of Polyacrylamide Gel in Underwater Cement Slurry
by Hao Lu, Bo Dai, Chunhe Li, Hua Wei and Jinhui Wang
Gels 2025, 11(2), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020099 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 272
Abstract
Zeta potential testing, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, and total organic carbon analysis were employed in this manuscript to explore the flocculation mechanism of polyacrylamide (PAM) on slurry with a high content of polycarboxylate ether (PCE). Through the combination of assessments of chemical bond shifts, [...] Read more.
Zeta potential testing, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, and total organic carbon analysis were employed in this manuscript to explore the flocculation mechanism of polyacrylamide (PAM) on slurry with a high content of polycarboxylate ether (PCE). Through the combination of assessments of chemical bond shifts, adsorption indicators, and intrinsic viscosity of high-molecular-weight polymer systems, the microscale flocculation mechanisms of different PAM dosages in cement suspensions were elucidated, showcasing stages of “adsorption–lubrication–entanglement”. Initially (PAM < 0.3%), with PAM introduction, the polymer primarily underwent adsorption interactions, including hydrogen bonding between the ester group, amine group, and water molecules; chelation between the ester group and Ca2+ and Al3+ on the cement surface; and bridging between PAM’s long-chain structure and cement particles. As the PAM content increased, the cement particles’ adsorption capacity saturated (PAM < 0.67%). The entropy loss of polymer conformation could not be offset by adsorption energy, leading to its exclusion from the interface and depletion attractive forces. Slurry movement shifted from inter-particle motion to high-molecular-weight polymer sliding in interstitial fluid, forming a lubrication effect. With further PAM content no less than 0.67%, the polymer solution reached a critical entanglement concentration, and the contact of the rotation radius of the long-chain molecules led to entanglement domination. By introducing bridging adsorption, depletion attraction, and entanglement forces, the cohesion of cement-based polymer suspensions was subsequently determined. The results showed a linear correlation between cohesion and PAM concentration raised to powers of 0.30, 1.0, and 0.75 at different interaction stages, and a multiscale validation from microscopic flocculation mechanisms to macroscopic performance was finally completed through a comparative analysis with macroscopic anti-washout performance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gels for Removal and Adsorption (3rd Edition))
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18 pages, 5530 KiB  
Article
Comparative Analysis of Tunicate vs. Plant-Based Cellulose in Chitosan Hydrogels for Bone Regeneration
by Laura Furlan, Annj Zamuner, Andrea Riccioni, Giacomo Sabbadin, Teresa Russo, Vito Gallicchio, Gabriella D’Auria, Lucia Falcigno, Lucia Manni, Loriano Ballarin, Elisabetta Schievano, Paola Brun and Monica Dettin
Gels 2025, 11(2), 102; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020102 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 330
Abstract
A novel hydrogel scaffold for bone regeneration based on chitosan, selected for its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and antimicrobial properties, was covalently functionalized with a bioactive peptide from bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) to guide osteoblast growth and proliferation. This study evaluates the impact of incorporating [...] Read more.
A novel hydrogel scaffold for bone regeneration based on chitosan, selected for its biocompatibility, biodegradability, and antimicrobial properties, was covalently functionalized with a bioactive peptide from bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) to guide osteoblast growth and proliferation. This study evaluates the impact of incorporating different concentrations (8, 16, or 24% wt/wt) of plant-based micro-fibrillated cellulose or tunicate nanocellulose to improve the mechanical and biological properties of peptide-grafted chitosan hydrogel matrices. While the mechanical properties of the matrices increase with increasing cellulose content, regardless of its source, the behavior of human osteoblasts used in biological tests discriminates between the two types of cellulose and shows better results (proliferation at 2 and 7 days, and mineralization) for the enrichment with tunicate cellulose. Full article
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19 pages, 5230 KiB  
Article
Development and Characterization of Niaprazine-Loaded Xanthan Gum-Based Gel for Oral Administration
by Elena Giuliano, Emanuela Longo, Agnese Gagliardi, Silvia Costa, Federica Squillace, Silvia Voci, Mario Verdiglione and Donato Cosco
Gels 2025, 11(2), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020101 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 338
Abstract
Niaprazine is a sedative-hypnotic drug initially developed as an antihistamine and used for its notable sedative effects, particularly in children. Following its withdrawal from the market by the producer, the drug has been administered as magistral formulations available in syrup form, but there [...] Read more.
Niaprazine is a sedative-hypnotic drug initially developed as an antihistamine and used for its notable sedative effects, particularly in children. Following its withdrawal from the market by the producer, the drug has been administered as magistral formulations available in syrup form, but there are several important disadvantages to this, including instability, taste issues, lack of controlled release, and the potential for unreliable dosing due to incomplete swallowing. There is also an increased risk of dental caries, as well as the fact that these formulations are not suitable for children who suffer from diabetes. The purpose of the current investigation is to prepare and characterize xanthan gum-based gels for the oral administration of niaprazine. Niaprazine gels appear as transparent-whiteish, non-sticky substances, with the drug uniformly dispersed throughout the systems. They are also stable over time. Dynamic rheology revealed their advantageous shear-thinning properties, which enable the formulation to be flexibly dosed orally through administration via syringe. During experimentation, the evaluation of the mucoadhesion features and the in vitro drug release profile were also performed. The results demonstrate that the formulation may represent an alternative to niaprazine syrup, allowing easy preparation, administration, and increased compliance in various categories of patients, including pediatric. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Gel Materials for Bioengineering)
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16 pages, 5868 KiB  
Article
Whitening Efficiency of Papain and Bromelain Gels in Removing Dental Stains
by Stanca Cuc, Codruta Sarosi, Ioan Petean, Amalia Moldovan, Cecilia Bacali and Sorin Claudiu Man
Gels 2025, 11(2), 100; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels11020100 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 468
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate the micro-nanostructure and color changes of dental enamel after treatment with new gel formulations containing papain or bromelain. Eighty caries-free, extracted human teeth were randomly divided into two groups (n = 40) and stained by immersion in either [...] Read more.
This study aimed to evaluate the micro-nanostructure and color changes of dental enamel after treatment with new gel formulations containing papain or bromelain. Eighty caries-free, extracted human teeth were randomly divided into two groups (n = 40) and stained by immersion in either coffee or Tedi juice for 4 h daily over five consecutive days. After staining, the samples were washed and stored in artificial saliva at 37 °C. The stained samples were then treated with four different whitening gels (GC, G1, G2, and Opalescence 15%) for 4 h daily. Following each treatment, the samples were rinsed and stored in artificial saliva. Color changes were measured using a digital spectrophotometer to assess CIEL*a*b* ΔE* and the Whiteness index (WI). The enamel micro-nanostructure was analyzed using SEM and AFM. Data were statistically analyzed using one-way ANOVA followed by Tukey’s HSD test. The results showed that gels containing papain and bromelain were more effective than the commercial gel in removing stains. SEM and AFM analysis indicated that papain was particularly effective for removing coffee stains, while bromelain was better for stains from natural juices. Healthy enamel has a Ra value of approximately 10 nm, which increases to about 40 nm after staining. Papain restored enamel roughness to approximately 8 nm for coffee stains and bromelain restored it to 11 nm for juice stains, delivering optimal results, while commercial gel ensures a roughness of about 15 nm after stain removal. CIELAB reveals notable changes in ΔE and WI after bleaching, revealing that papain gel is optimal for coffee stain removal and bromelain gel is optimal for natural juice stains. In conclusion, dental stains should be assessed by a dentist to determine the most suitable gel for achieving optimal results. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Excellence in Bioactive Gels)
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