Global Supply Chains Made Visible through Logistics Security Management

: Background: For several years, two of the major concerns of logistics managers are (i) the visibility of global supply chains and (ii) the uncertainty in deciding which existing logistics security program is the most appropriate according to the security levels for their organization. This last decision is needed to ensure traceability and visibility of the supply chain. The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of the main public and private supply chain security management programs in Latin America and the Caribbean. Methods: A qualitative and quantitative research methodology based on thematic content analysis is followed. The four main existing security programs in Latin America and the Caribbean are systematically compared and a common general framework is developed. Results: The analysis shows a high degree of similarity between the levels of security contained in the selected programs. Conclusions: We found that there is little guidance available for companies interested in managing security risks in their supply chains through these logistics’ security programs. This article contributes to the literature on logistics security programs that is currently gaining momentum in managing security risks in global supply chains and provides academic insights into the choice and/or complementarity of one or more logistics security programs.


Introduction
In the current economic and international context, global supply chain visibility has been a major concern for logistics and supply chain (SC) managers to keep their supply chains running smoothly and has been a global challenge for managers.Supply chain visibility is a concept that is receiving increasing attention from researchers.Increasing visibility levels in the supply chain is considered beneficial at the upstream level for suppliers and downstream level for customers [1].Together with information sharing, they have become indispensable requirements to achieve efficient and effective supply chain management, facilitate decision making, and improve cooperation between supply chain partners [2][3][4].Therefore, visibility is an outcome of external integration, which requires a dual approach that aligns increased visibility with extensive information processing capabilities of internal integration, as a complementary capability to visibility [5].
On the other hand, there are supply chain security management systems or logistics security programs based on security risk management (SCR), which allow the identification and assessment of risks to address security uncertainty affecting the smooth operation of the SC.There is a significant relationship between supply chain visibility (SCV) and supply chain risk management.Indeed, by having a clear visibility of the activities and processes throughout the supply chain with each of the actors, it allows the identification, analysis, and assessment of the risks associated with security, and allows the necessary preventive or corrective measures to be taken to mitigate potential risks that disrupt the SC.Therefore, SCV and SCR complement each other and are fundamental to achieving a resilient and secure supply chain.
clearer view when selecting one or more logistics security programs, with the final aim of strengthening the visibility processes of their global supply chains.
In terms of scientific knowledge, this paper proposes a novel analysis, which has been non-existent to date in the literature, about the relationship between the four security programs (C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000).Indeed, this paper also relates the main criminal trends that put the security of supply chains in the Latin America and the Caribbean region at risk.Subsequently, inspired by a content analysis methodology, the paper presents a review of the four main security programs, through the design of a common general framework for comparing their content in their normative structure.The research considers the relationship and analysis of the benefits offered by each program, as well as their average costs to access their respective programs.
To achieve the above-mentioned objectives, this paper is organized as follows.Section 2 overviews the literature related to the topic under study.Section 3 describes the research focus and methodology, while Section 4 focuses on the description of the selected logistics security programs.Section 5 is devoted to analyzing the main risks in global supply chain management.The findings of the study are presented in Section 6, regarding (i) the content analysis of the four selected security programs, (ii) the benefits of their implementation, and (iii) the related costs.Section 7 presents open research problems.This paper concludes in Section 8 by presenting the conclusions and discussions of the work, as well as recommendations for companies that have more than one logistics security program in their supply chain management processes.

Related Literature
Supply chain security management (SCSM) or logistics security has its genesis at the beginning of the 21st century, prompted by the fateful events of 11 September 2001, in the United States (i.e., airplane crashes into the Twin Towers, the Pentagon, etc.).Since then, governments and international organizations have been developing a series of programs related to supply chain security.At the same time, supply management researchers and professionals have organized and published a series of articles, books, and journals, mainly in the United States, followed by Europe, Asia, and Latin America, that contribute today to the study and knowledge of this new discipline of logistics security [12].
The World Bank, in its Supply Chain Security Guide [14], conceptualizes supply chain security (SCS) as programs, systems, procedures, technologies, and solutions applied to address threats to the supply chain and the resulting threats to the economic, social, and physical well-being of citizens and organized society.The program in this guide is understood as complex and composed of interrelated or interwoven parts, methods, procedures, systems, standards, and regulations applied to the segments or components of the supply chain to improve its security.Programs, also defined as "initiatives", can be worldwide, regional, national, governmental, sectoral, multilateral, bilateral, mandatory, or voluntary.
Pérez [15] defines supply chain security as the set of actions carried out to ensure the correct and timely functioning of supply chains, since they integrate flows of goods, information, and financial resources between different actors (producers, clients, logistics operators), very often among different and distant countries.Hintsa et al. [12] specify that a company's logistics function must integrate this new dimension of security management into its strategy and organization, reaching throughout the entire supply chain.Logistics practitioners must help the executive management team realize the importance of considering SCSM measures from product sourcing and development to final customer distribution, in order to prevent, detect, or recover from criminal acts as quickly as possible, to ensure the continuity and profitability of the company.
Therefore, Pérez [15] argues that logistics security is a topic of growing regional importance and crucial for the development of Latin America and the Caribbean due to its harmful economic and social effects.It is essential to coordinate the different public and private initiatives nationally and regionally in this matter.The disruption of a supply chain, whether due to administrative failure, criminal, or terrorist acts, has enormous repercussions on the competitiveness of the national economy, where the direct losses produced by the event must be added to its propagation effects in the rest of the supply chain (e.g., delays and non-compliance with customers, contract losses, increase in inventory levels).Ultimately, all of these are necessary to deal with the greater variability in delivery times, among other factors, that ultimately end up aggravating national logistics costs.
Activities within the supply chain are inherently exposed to a series of risks.The ISO 31000 standard, published by the International Standard Organization (ISO), defines risk as "the effect of uncertainty on objectives" [16].Under this definition, an effect is an impact or consequence of what is expected, whether positive, negative, or both; uncertainty is the state, even partial, of deficiency of information related to the understanding or knowledge of an event, its consequence, or its probability of occurrence; and objectives represent the different levels of the organization, products, and processes.
The Supply Chain Risk Leadership Council [17] exposes the "supply chain risk" as the probability and consequence of events at any point in the end-to-end supply chain, from sources of raw materials to end-use by customers, and "supply chain risk management (SCRM)" as the coordination of activities to direct and control the end-to-end supply chain of a company regarding supply chain risks.Supply chain risk management integrates several previous or ongoing initiatives, including those related to business continuity and supply chain security.
The U.S. National Security [18], in its declassified document Intelligence Community Standard 731-01, Supply Chain Criticality Assessments, defines supply chain risk management (SCRM) as a systematic process for managing the risk to the integrity, reliability, and authenticity of products and services within the supply chain.It addresses the activities of foreign intelligence entities and any adversary attempts aimed at compromising the supply chain.It is carried out through the identification of threats, vulnerabilities, and consequences throughout the supply chain and the development of mitigation strategies to address the respective threats.
It is important to highlight that the concepts of supply chain disruption management, supply chain vulnerability, and supply chain resilience are all also related to security in supply chains [19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30].However, as pointed out by Williams et al. [31], the study of security issues in the supply chain is relatively new, and much of the attention to supply chain security (SCS) comes from the growing complexity and globalization of supply chains.These realities have increased the number of companies and people involved in bringing goods and services to the market.
It is clear that studies on supply chain security issues are relatively new.It was not until two decades ago that the different logistics security programs were initiated by international organizations to address these supply chain security problems, and with them a number of publications have been developed that contribute to the study and knowledge of each program.
However, there is no updated analysis in the literature on the logistics security programs under study (C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000) and their relationship with each other.Between 2001 (start date of the first security program) and 2011, there is only one study conducted in 2009 by Gutierrez and Hintsa of the Cross-border Research Association (CBRA) in Lausanne, Switzerland (see [32]), where they conducted a comparative analysis of nine worldwide security initiatives, including the C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000 programs, to establish their compatibility and identify the security measures that may become mandatory in the near future.Over the last decade (2012-2022), several research studies have been developed.So, an analysis of the published literature is proposed following a systematic review methodology as proposed by Tranfield et al. [33].The steps of the review protocol are shown in Figure 1.
As indicated in [33], the search process began with the selection of articles published between January 2012 and December 2022.The Scopus database was used, due to its ability to access a larger number of international open access articles.The review was performed using the keywords "C-TPAT", "AEO", "BASC", and "ISO 28000".Twenty-eight articles were obtained during the study period.After considering the exclusion criteria (only articles within the objective and scope of the research), two articles were eliminated.
To characterize the data, Table 1 was prepared with short-listed contributions over the period 2012 to 2022.The table allows us to visualize the research on these programs and define the novelty of this study.2016).[39] X ISO 31000 as a complement to ISO 28000.
As indicated in [33], the search process began with the selection of articles published between January 2012 and December 2022.The Scopus database was used, due to its ability to access a larger number of international open access articles.The review was performed using the keywords "C-TPAT", "AEO", "BASC", and "ISO 28000".Twenty-eight articles were obtained during the study period.After considering the exclusion criteria (only articles within the objective and scope of the research), two articles were eliminated.
To characterize the data, Table 1 was prepared with short-listed contributions over the period 2012 to 2022.The table allows us to visualize the research on these programs and define the novelty of this study.The analysis of the table leads to the hypothesis that previous work in the published academic literature over the last 10 years has not addressed the four security programs together, nor has the relationship between them been studied.The current paper hence presents a novelty that contributes to the existing body of literature on issues related to logistics security programs, which are every day gaining strength in organizations as part of global supply chains.

Research Focus and Methodology
Considering the aim of the present study and the research question, it was determined to develop an exploratory study on the main logistics security programs issued by different international organizations for supply chain security management.In order to focus the research, the scope is set to be the security programs available in Latin America and the Caribbean, taking into account that Latin American companies have been experiencing a growth in their participation in international trade, due to the multiple trade agreements they have signed with countries in the region and with developed economies such as the United States and the European Union, through unilateral and discretionary tariff preferences [59].
However, this dynamic has led companies to form agile, flexible, secure, and resilient global supply chains, requiring the integration of logistics service providers and the participation of public control agencies for the development of their operations.This dynamic offers opportunities and challenges for supply chain management.One of the major challenges is to secure the supply chains against common threats in the region, through the implementation of logistics security programs available, which contribute to the visibility and management of security risks in the region's supply chains.
Taking these elements into account, the application of this study is geographically limited to this region in order to provide greater clarity and dissemination of these security programs to logistics managers when selecting the appropriate programs for the development and implementation of good security practices.
Based on this study focus, a brief description of the beginnings and evolution of each logistics security program (C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO) over the last two decades is first described, using publicly available sources of information from international organizations.It then presents the main security risks that threaten global supply chains in the Latin American and Caribbean region and their materialization in criminal actions that affect the security and continuity of operations of the companies that are part of the supply chains.
To carry out a comparison and content analysis of the selected security programs, the thematic content analysis methodology is defined with a qualitative and quantitative approach, through a general process based on six phases as proposed in [60].These steps are: (1) data collection and preparation, (2) familiarization, (3) generating codes, (4) constructing themes or categories, (5) revising and defining the themes, and (6) producing the report.The four logistics security programs are studied, and a standard framework of security levels is developed for qualitative analysis, defining the security objectives that these programs mainly promote, represented in eight chapters and five main security requirements for each chapter, with their respective coding.Then, the General Logistics Security Management Framework is prepared with an evaluation for quantitative analysis of the four programs, using a 0/1 evaluation scale (1 if the program complies, 0 otherwise).Finally, the results of the thematic content analysis are given, represented in degrees of similarity of the four logistics security programs.This paper presents those results for the first time.
Likewise, the benefits offered by each program, as well as their average costs to access these initiatives from the public and private sectors, are described.Finally, conclusions and discussions are presented that offer greater clarity to supply chain and logistics academicians and practitioners when deciding to adopt one or more security initiatives in their organizational processes.

Description of the Analyzed Logistics Security Programs
Shortly after the terrorist attacks of 11 September 2001, several organizations and countries launched a series of security initiatives and regulations to improve the security of international trade [60], which have been of great interest to companies, especially in Latin America and the Caribbean (the focal region of this study), committed to safe and reliable trade.These initiatives, both voluntary and mandatory, have become an integral part of the risk management of their supply chains.Table 2 presents a comprehensive list of existing initiatives by government organizations to provide responses and actions regarding supply chain security with their respective agencies and actors.The content of the table is adapted from [12].In addition to list the programs or initiatives, the table also presents the originating actors (public or private), the scope of supply chain actors to be considered when implementing the program or initiative, the enforceability as being voluntary or mandatory, and an overview of actions or responses to security issues of the supply chain.The reader must note that the security criteria of C-TPAT (Customs Trade Partnership Against Terrorism) have been an inspiration for the implementation and adoption of other supply chain security programs by the private and public sectors, as summarized in their evolutionary process in Figure 2. Indeed, the figure chronologically presents the release and updating of security programs by organizations in the last two decades, with C-TPAT being the first logistics security program issued by the U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) in 2001, in response to the events of 9/11.The aim was to strengthen international supply chains and improve the country's border security.A brief overview of each of these four programs is given next.
trafficking, cargo damage, and loss, among others: The reader must note that the security criteria of C-TPAT (Customs Trade Partne ship Against Terrorism) have been an inspiration for the implementation and adoption o other supply chain security programs by the private and public sectors, as summarized i their evolutionary process in Figure 2. Indeed, the figure chronologically presents the re lease and updating of security programs by organizations in the last two decades, with C TPAT being the first logistics security program issued by the U.S. Customs and Borde Protection (CBP) in 2001, in response to the events of 9/11.The aim was to strengthe international supply chains and improve the country's border security.A brief overview of each of these four programs is given next.[61].The certification process begins with the interested company submitting its application to participate in the AEO Program to CBP through the C-TPAT Portal.Participants complete the security profile corresponding to the type of company and then must conduct a comprehensive self-assessment of their supply chain security procedures, using C-TPAT's minimum security criteria according to their category.Once the application and self-assessment are completed, it ends with a validation visit by a Supply Chain Security Specialist (SCSS) designated by CBP and begins to receive the benefits of the C-TPAT program.Certification is carried out annually by the CBP customs authority.
BASC (Business Alliance for Secure Commerce) is a voluntary program led by the World BASC Organization (WBO), based on an international business alliance that promotes secure trade in cooperation with governments and international organizations.Its mission is to generate a culture of security throughout the supply chain, through the implementation of management systems and instruments applicable to international trade and sectors related to the logistics chain: importers, exporters, shipping lines, container yards, logistics operators, maritime/port terminals, free zones, security and surveillance companies, customs agents, airports/airlines, and hotels.Currently, BASC has a presence through its BASC Chapters in the following countries in the Americas and the Caribbean: Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, the United States of America, Guatemala, Mexico, Panama, Peru, the Dominican Republic, and Venezuela [62].The certification process is carried out by each BASC Chapter in the countries where it is present and certifies those companies where there is no Chapter presence, such as Argentina, Honduras, Paraguay, and Uruguay.It begins with the request from the interested company, receiving indications of the process through the BASC Chapter where it is located, and then the company has implemented the BASC program within its processes.A security specialist designated by the corresponding Chapter validates the member company's facilities for compliance with BASC security standards and regulations for certification, with a validity of one year.
Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) is also a voluntary program driven globally by the World Customs Organization (WCO), adopted under the SAFE Framework of Standards in 2005.It consists of a series of guidelines that must be applied by customs and demanded from operators, aimed at improving security in the supply chain, reducing both the risks of intentional manipulation and accidents that could jeopardize shipments, whatever their contents may be.Then, through mutual recognition of National Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) Programs, it seeks to facilitate secure trade [63].The SAFE Framework establishes that implementing this instrument (AEO) will not only require capacity building, but also an understanding that a gradual approach will be needed.It is not reasonable to expect every customs administration to implement the SAFE Framework immediately.While the SAFE Framework is considered a minimum set of standards, it will be implemented in several stages according to the capacity of each administration and the necessary legislative power.In this sense, the AEO program has been progressively adopted and implemented by customs authorities in countries affiliated with the WCO, under the standards issued by the SAFE Framework and according to the 2020 edition of the Compendium of Authorized Economic Operator Programs [64], developed by the WCO.There are currently 97 operational AEO programs and 20 programs under development, 33 operational Customs Compliance programs, and 4 Customs Compliance programs in the launch phase.
In Latin America and the Caribbean, there are currently around 18 countries that already have operational AEO programs (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, the Dominican Republic, and Uruguay).In the case of Venezuela, its AEO Program is still under development.The certification process is carried out after verifying that the applicant company complies with the requirements demanded by the relevant AEO program in the country.The Customs Authority grants the AEO accreditation as a guarantee of its reliability to carry out operations with the Customs Authority.The main requirements are a satisfactory history of compliance with customs and tax requirements, accredited financial solvency, and adequate levels of security [65].
ISO 28000 is a voluntary standard for Supply Chain Security Management.It is an international standard that specifies the requirements for a security management system, including aspects relevant to the supply chain.This standard is applicable to all types and sizes of organizations (e.g., commercial businesses, government agencies, or other public agencies, and non-profit organizations) that intend to establish, implement, maintain, and improve a security management system.It provides a holistic and common approach and is not specific to an industry or sector [66].ISO 28001 is a voluntary standard for Security Management Systems for the Supply Chain, providing best practices for implementing plans, assessments, and supply chain security.It provides requirements and guidance for organizations in international supply chains to develop and implement supply chain security processes; establish and document a minimum level of security within the supply chain or segment of a supply chain; assist in compliance with applicable Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) criteria established in the World Customs Organization Framework of Standards; and comply with national supply chain security programs.Users of ISO 28001 can define the part of an international supply chain within which they have established security; conduct security assessments in that part of the supply chain and develop appropriate countermeasures; develop and implement a supply chain security plan; and train security personnel in their security-related functions [67].The ISO 28000 and 28001 standards are issued by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), an independent non-governmental international organization with a membership of 167 national standardization bodies.Through its members, it brings together experts to share knowledge and develop voluntary International Standards, based on consensus and relevant to the market, supporting innovation and providing solutions to global challenges.
Currently, there are a significant number of cargo owners (importers and exporters) and logistics service providers that are part of global supply chains, which have progressively adopted the programs within their corporate processes since the official launch of security standards by international organizations.According to the following international organizations on their portals and reports for the year 2020, they record several companies in the Americas and the Caribbean with certifications of logistic security programs, including C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO 28000, as shown in Table 3.  Table 3 reflects that the ISO 28000 program has few certified companies in the region (162 companies) and 358 companies in the rest of the world, for a total of 520 companies worldwide, according to the ISO Survey of Management System Standard Certifications 2020 [68].Despite being a standard published in 2007, there are still many companies in the world that do not apply it, due to barriers related to its implementation [48].However, ISO launched the new version of ISO 28000 in 2021 with adjustments to its High-Level Structure (HLS) and harmonization with the ISO 22301 Business Continuity Management [69] and ISO 31000 Risk Management standards [16].It is expected that with this new update, companies will be motivated to apply this standard and integrate it into their organizational processes.
It should be noted that the implementation of AEO programs has been progressive worldwide and especially in Latin America and the Caribbean by the customs authorities of each country since its official launch in 2007.Most of these programs date back to the last eight years on average.Table 4 presents the status of operational and developing programs, their name, launch dates, eligible actors, number of AEO certificates per country, and national authorities involved in certification.
According to the table, in the Americas and the Caribbean region, there are currently around eighteen countries that already have operational AEO Programs (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Jamaica, Honduras, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Dominican Republic, and Uruguay).In the case of Venezuela, its AEO program is pending regulation.The implementation of these programs in the region has been gradual, as each country, through its customs authorities, issues the AEO Program in accordance with its administrative capacity and legislative powers.

Main Security Risks in Global Supply Chains
As pointed out before, supply chains have experienced significant growth due to a radical shift in manufacturing and marketing strategy from the past, which was dominated by "local for local".Nowadays, thanks to outsourcing procurement, manufacturing, and assembly, supply chains extend from one end of the planet to the other.This increases their complexity, to the point of preventing those who need to know what is happening from having clear visibility, leading to higher levels of risk and therefore vulnerability [16].Supply chain security has become a major concern for supply chain professionals, and especially for global supply chains where security-related risk is a particular concern [70].
On the other hand, authors such as Young and Esqueda [71] suggest that companies have multiple forms of supply chains and the fact that global chains are inherently complex by nature, they are often inflexible and inherently vulnerable to interruptions and disturbances.Therefore, many modern supply chains around the world have been characterized by high levels of complexity and uncertainty that often expose them to supply chain disruptions [72].These disruptions represent a risk in global supply chains.Peck and Christopher [21] suggests four categories of risks that global chains face: supply risks, demand risks, operational risks, and security risks.The latter is represented in the distribution of results related to adverse events that threaten human resources, the integrity of operations, and information systems.It can lead to outcomes such as transportation breaches, stolen data or knowledge, vandalism, crime, and sabotage [73].Theft, smuggling, violations of intellectual property, and terrorism are just some examples of the pending threats to supply chains.
In general terms, the Supply Chain Risk Leadership Council [17] presents "supply chain risk" as the probability and consequence of events at any point in the end-to-end supply chain, from raw material sources to end use by customers.For some authors (see [73]), security risks arise in supply chains at three main moments, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Security risks in the major moments in the supply chain (source: [73]).

Major Moments in Supply Chains
Security Risks

Loading of trucks or other transportation means
During loading of containers onto transportation means, effective measures must ensure that neither weapons, nor explosives, nor other prohibited materials are introduced into containers.
During transportation, the major concern is for the cargo not to be tampered with and so, the declared goods remain those, and only those, carried in the shipment.

Unloading/receiving of shipments and containers
Upon unloading/receiving of a shipment, security measures ensure that no undeclared items are added to a shipment, and also that declared items are not subtracted from the cargo.Security measures must ensure that only authorized personnel perform the intended operations, which guarantee that the declared goods are indeed those carried in a shipment.
The vulnerability of the supply chain is transmitted to the transportation network.This depends on the simple fact that transportation and freight activities physically link the facilities of a supply chain.Therefore, risks, uncertainties, and vulnerabilities in the supply chain and the transportation network affect, contribute to, and neutralize each other.Supply chain security is intended to safeguard the supply chain (in this sense, transportation and cargo activities) from different antagonistic threats and thus reduce the vulnerability of modern global trade [74].
However, there are a number of supply chain security risks that disrupt global supply chains, generated in large part by criminal activity.According to the International Criminal Police Organization (INTERPOL) 2022 Summary Report on Global Crime Trends [75], threat generators, both individually and collectively, have demonstrated their agility in overcoming obstacles and seeking opportunities to carry out illicit activities.In this context, law enforcement must be able to quickly detect and decipher the complex dynamics of ever-changing criminal markets and networks, to design and implement strategies of the utmost effectiveness aimed at preventing and combating crime.This report highlights current or emerging trends in crime and terrorism, which, due to their scope, volume, frequency, or harmful impact, pose a significant threat to transnational security.The resulting analysis points to five broad areas of crime that dominate the landscape of global crime threats and, therefore, take advantage of global supply chains to carry out some of their criminal activities.These criminal trends include organized crime, illicit trafficking (notably drug trafficking, human trafficking, and migrant smuggling), financial crimes (particularly money laundering, financial scams, and corruption, as a crucial facilitator of crimes), cybercrime (especially ransomware, phishing, and internet fraud), and terrorism.The report's findings underline that each of these five types of crimes has either remained steady or increased, particularly during the global pandemic, and continues to pose a serious threat to the security and well-being of both public and private entities and agents, from government and business organizations to individual citizens.
The main conclusions about the specific motivations and manifestations of these crime trends for the Americas and the Caribbean region are summarized in Table 6.Furthermore, the security risks that these criminal trends pose to global supply chains in Latin America and the Caribbean are defined.It also defines the actions proposed by logistics security programs to address these crime trends.To have a demanding selection and continuous monitoring of business partners (suppliers and customers), to protect themselves from illegal activities or being involved in incidents of contamination of their supply chains.
Implement oriented measures to maintain the integrity of the container and other cargo units, as well as the means of transport, in order to prevent the occurrence of security incidents.
Have access control to the company's facilities, which includes control measures to prevent unauthorized access to the facilities, maintain control of employees and visitors, and protect the company's assets.As well as measures to ensure the security of all its facilities (surveillance and control of the exterior and interior perimeters).
Have a personnel selection process to guarantee the knowledge of its employees.
Have procedures in place to ensure the integrity and security of the processes related to the handling, storage, and transportation of cargo in the supply chain.

Illicit Trafficking
• Member countries in the region most frequently indicated illicit firearms trafficking as the crime trend perceived to pose a 'high' or 'very high' threat.

•
The illicit production and distribution of cocaine was the drug-related trend most frequently perceived to pose a 'high' or 'very high' threat by member countries from the region.However, there are other risks that translate into security risks in the international supply chain, such as the risks of natural disasters, biological disasters, inflation, and forced labor, as shown in Table 7.To have a plan that guarantees the continuity of its operations in the event of natural disasters, fires, power outages, communication and transportation failures, viruses, and inflation.

•
Inflation measures the rate of price increases in the economy.Inflation in the supply chain can cause a ripple effect on prices, which causes supply chain costs to rise, leading to more inflation and higher prices.

•
Current inflationary pressure is caused by increases in production costs, such as wages, raw materials, energy, and transportation.

•
If the increased costs must be passed on to the buyer, then demand generally falls, so producers may require fewer goods or services.
If left unchecked, inflation can result in a severe loss of consumer or organizational purchasing power.This generates a social impact in developed and emerging countries.For the former, inflation could manifest itself, for example, in the form of higher prices for appliances, recreation, meat, travel, or motor vehicles.For the other, it could be that the prices that are rising the most are those of fuels, basic foodstuffs, and electric power [78,79], and this could somehow lead to a social standoff, where looting, theft from shops, and robbery in the transportation network could occur.
Forced Labor (Global Slavery Index-GSI, 2023) [79] • Modern slavery is an umbrella term that encompasses several types of exploitation, including forced labor, human trafficking, and forced marriage.
Vulnerability to modern slavery in the Americas region is largely due to inequality, political instability and discrimination against migrants and minority groups.This risk can be represented by a supplier or subcontractor in the supply chain being linked to forced labor.
Conduct a review of the hiring processes of personnel linked to their suppliers and/or subcontractors.
If there is any link to forced labor activity, companies should terminate contracts and relationships with these suppliers and report them to the competent authorities as part of their social responsibility policy.
The risks referenced in the table translate into threats to global supply chains, disrupting the achievement of efficient and effective supply chain management, which must be contemplated in risk management by logistics managers in their organizations.

Findings 6.1. Comparison and Analysis of the Content of Logistics Security Programs
As mentioned earlier in this paper, the review of the regulatory framework focuses on the four main security programs issued by different international organizations for supply chain security management.The scope is limited to Latin America and the Caribbean.The selected programs are C-TPAT, BASC, SAFE Framework (AEO), and ISO 28000.
In order to carry out the comparison and content analysis of the selected security programs, the following general thematic content analysis process was defined using a qualitative and quantitative approach, based on six phases proposed in [60] (see Figure 3).
The risks referenced in the table translate into threats to global supply chains, disrupting the achievement of efficient and effective supply chain management, which must be contemplated in risk management by logistics managers in their organizations.

Comparison and Analysis of the Content of Logistics Security Programs
As mentioned earlier in this paper, the review of the regulatory framework focuses on the four main security programs issued by different international organizations for supply chain security management.The scope is limited to Latin America and the Caribbean.The selected programs are C-TPAT, BASC, SAFE Framework (AEO), and ISO 28000.
In order to carry out the comparison and content analysis of the selected security programs, the following general thematic content analysis process was defined using a qualitative and quantitative approach, based on six phases proposed in [60] (see Figure 3).This diagram shows the general process of a thematic content analysis, where each of the phases is described: Phase 1: Collection and preparation of data: In this phase, data from the four security programs C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO 28000 are collected and prepared, using publicly available sources of information from international bodies, and a description of their regulatory structure is provided in chapters representing the security levels of each program.Phase 2: Familiarization with the data: The textual data in the structures of each security program is viewed several times.This allows you to become familiar with the information, recognize variations, and understand the context.Phase 3: Generating codes: At this stage, the data are organized around similar meanings, coded under a deductive orientation, assigning labels called chapters and security requirements.Not all security program requirements are included in their entirety as they are irrelevant to the analysis.Phase 4: Constructing themes or categories: Categories are created using the axial coding process.By categorizing and sub-categorizing the data, a standard framework of security levels is constructed for qualitative analysis.Phase 5: Revising and defining the themes: Based on the standard framework of security levels, the General Logistics Security Management Framework is elaborated with an assessment for quantitative analysis of the eight chapters and 40 security requirements in the four programs.Defining an evaluation scale, if it complies it is 1, and if it does not comply, it is 0.

Collection and preparation of data:
The following logistics security programs are taken as a sample: C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO 28000.

Familiarization with the data:
The textual data in the structures of each security programme are viewed several times.

Generating codes:
The data are organised around similar meanings

Constructing themes or categories:
Categorizing and subcategorizing the data, a standard framework.

Revising and defining the themes:
General Logistics Security Management Framework is elaborated.

Producing the report
Findings -Degree of similarity This diagram shows the general process of a thematic content analysis, where each of the phases is described: Phase 1: Collection and preparation of data: In this phase, data from the four security programs C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO 28000 are collected and prepared, using publicly available sources of information from international bodies, and a description of their regulatory structure is provided in chapters representing the security levels of each program.Phase 2: Familiarization with the data: The textual data in the structures of each security program is viewed several times.This allows you to become familiar with the information, recognize variations, and understand the context.Phase 3: Generating codes: At this stage, the data are organized around similar meanings, coded under a deductive orientation, assigning labels called chapters and security requirements.Not all security program requirements are included in their entirety as they are irrelevant to the analysis.Phase 4: Constructing themes or categories: Categories are created using the axial coding process.By categorizing and sub-categorizing the data, a standard framework of security levels is constructed for qualitative analysis.Phase 5: Revising and defining the themes: Based on the standard framework of security levels, the General Logistics Security Management Framework is elaborated with an assessment for quantitative analysis of the eight chapters and 40 security requirements in the four programs.Defining an evaluation scale, if it complies it is 1, and if it does not comply, it is 0. Phase 6: Producing the report: This final phase presents the results of the thematic content analysis, represented in degrees of similarity of the four logistics security programs.
It takes the four security programs under study, using public information sources.These programs are based on a chapter or number structure for logistics security.Table 8 presents a comparison of the contents defined by each initiative.According to the chapter or numeral structure related to the table, these programs aim at the same security and resilience objectives, with a similar structure to achieve them.Security reviews of business partners.

5.
Supply chain security process.

5.2
Identification of the scope of security assessment.

5.3
Conduction of the security assessment.

5.4
Development of the supply chain security plan.

5.5
Execution of the supply chain security plan.

5.6
Documentation and monitoring of the supply chain security process.According to the structures of the security programs outlined above, there is a great similarity in terms of the level of security measures and controls to be implemented.However, the ISO 28000 program provides a structure that translates into procedures, activities, controls, tools, and technologies, leaving it up to each company to adopt within the processes the security measures it considers necessary to guarantee the security of the supply chain.Despite these differences, it is observed that the programs promote the following security objectives or chapters: risk management, physical security, access control, personnel security, education and training, procedural security, document handling security, trading partner security, transport security, crisis management, and disaster recovery [7].Each chapter or number in these programs has a set of minimum requirements or security measures represented in procedures, activities, controls, tools, and technologies that "must" or "should" be implemented within the organization's processes.According to ISO, the word "must" implies a mandatory requirement, while the word "should" suggests an action.
Based on the above, the following Security Level Standard Framework is elaborated for qualitative analysis, which includes the codification of the common chapters or numbers and the main minimum security requirements (not all security program requirements are included in their entirety as they are irrelevant for the analysis).Eight chapters and five main security requirements are defined for each chapter, with their respective codification.This is shown in Table 9. 2. Knowledge of business partners/business associates.
Ensure a reliable selection and evaluation of business partners (customers and suppliers) to protect against activities related to money laundering and terrorist financing, as well as those actions that may affect the security and integrity of the goods carried out by logistics operators.
2.1 Must have documented procedures for purchasing, selection, and contracting of suppliers that guarantee their reliability.2.2 Must have documented procedures for customer selection and contracting that guarantee their reliability.
2.3 It must carry out security visits to the facilities where its business partners carry out their operations, to verify that they have implemented security measures in the international supply chain.2.4 It must issue security agreements for those trading partners that do not have security program certificates from other international public or private organizations.
2.5 The company and its members (managers) should have their background checked against national and international lists for the prevention of crimes related to money laundering and terrorism.Maintain the integrity of containers and other cargo units, as well as means of transport, to protect them against the occurrence of security incidents.
3.1 Must have documented procedures and controls to ensure the integrity of containers and other cargo units at the point of filling to protect them against the introduction of unauthorized persons or materials.
3.2 Shall use security seals under the standards contained in the current ISO 17712 standard on containers and other sealable cargo units.
3.3 Inspect the physical integrity of the container structure (internal and external) and other cargo units, as well as the means of transport.A documentary record of the inspection shall be kept by the person responsible for the activity.
3.4 Ensure that the areas where containers and other cargo units (full or empty) are stored are secure and prevent unauthorized access and/or manipulation.
3.5 Have procedures in place to detect and report unauthorized entry to containers and other cargo units, as well as when security seals have been breached.

Physical access controls and physical security.
Prevent unauthorized access to the facilities and ensure the security of the facilities through surveillance and perimeter control, especially in critical areas of the company.5. Safety in the processes related to handling, storage, and conveyance.
Ensure the integrity, safety and traceability of the processes related to the handling, storage and transportation of cargo in the supply chain.
5.1 Must have documented procedures for handling, storage and transportation of cargo.5.2 Must have tools to ensure traceability of the cargo and the vehicle transporting it from the point of filling to the port of shipment to the outside (downstream).5.3 Must have tools to ensure traceability of the cargo from the point of filling abroad to the importer's headquarters or distribution point (upstream).5.4 Must have a protocol to act and report suspicious activities or security incidents that affect the security of the supply chain to the competent authority.5.5 You must protect the physical and electronic documentation of your international supply chain operations.Based on the above standard framework of security levels, the General Logistics Security Management Framework is elaborated with an evaluation of its quantitative analysis of the eight chapters and 40 security requirements in the four programs, defining an evaluation scale of 1 (if it complies) or 0 (otherwise), as shown in Table 10.2.5 The company and its members (managers) should have their background checked against national and international lists for the prevention of crimes related to money laundering and terrorism.3. Conveyance and transportation unit security.
3.1 Must have documented procedures and controls to ensure the integrity of containers and other cargo units at the point of filling to protect them against the introduction of unauthorized persons or materials.3.3 Inspect the physical integrity of the container structure (internal and external) and other cargo units, as well as the means of transport.A documentary record of the inspection shall be kept by the person responsible for the activity.3.5 Have procedures in place to detect and report unauthorized entry to containers and other cargo units, as well as when security seals have been breached.5.2 Must have tools to ensure traceability of the cargo and the vehicle transporting it from the point of filling to the port of shipment to the outside (downstream).7.2 It must contemplate software programs and equipment to protect against common external cybersecurity threats (viruses, worms, spyware, Trojans, hackers, among others).And internal threats of theft or leakage of information through the use of USB or storage devices, emails, and unintentional human error.According to the developed General Logistics Security Management Framework, it is observed that current programs contain a 99% similarity degree in their chapters and largely aim at the same minimum-security requirements.Previous works in the literature published (see [32]) analyzed a total of nine programs by comparing their contents with the General Framework for Supply Chain Security.In contrast to the results of the current papers, those previous works showed an overall average similarity degree of 62% for the set of four programs analyzed here.The high degree of similarity in our results is due to the fact that, in the last two decades, logistics security programs have been updated through mutual cooperation between international organizations, governments, and control authorities for the exchange of experience and information to develop new security measures against new global threats, with the main objective of facilitating reliable and secure international trade.
It should be noted that ISO standards, despite not having a certain similarity in the chapter designations, are translated into procedures, activities, controls, tools, and technologies that the organization must adopt within the processes to ensure supply chain security.On the other hand, it is important to note that the structure of BASC and ISO 28000/28001 programs is focused on a management system.The ISO standard defines the management system as a "set of interrelated or interacting elements and activities of an organization that establish policies, objectives, and processes to achieve goals" [67,68].Management systems have a managerial or strategic initiative within organizations because they generate added value in their mission and vision regarding stakeholders.
However, the C-TPAT and AEO programs can be considered as a management system because they contain base elements such as policies, objectives, and processes, and because they aim at a managerial initiative to generate value in their strategic, mission, and support processes in supply chain security management issues.In addition, they can be integrated with other management systems or programs that the company may have.And for those companies that do not have a management system, these programs facilitate its adoption for the implementation of a management system.
Finally, management systems are subject to periodic assessment or audits that ensure continuous improvement for certification and compliance with requirements for system conformity by the public or private sector certifying agency, as reflected in Table 11.The table reflects the period of external assessment or external audits for each program.However, once a company is certified for any program, it must conduct and document annual internal audits to verify compliance with and maintenance of the minimum requirements of the relevant security program.

Benefits of Implementing a Logistics Security Program
Each logistics security program offers a series of common benefits to member companies, such as international recognition as a secure and committed company with safety in its logistics processes, trust from stakeholders, participation in training activities, strengthening of resilience capacity, and continuity of operations in the face of unexpected events, as described in Table 12.
It is evident from the table that the public sector logistics security programs, in addition to the benefits described above, have additional benefits on the part of the customs authority, such as the assignment of an official specialized in logistics security, facilities in simplified customs procedures and submissions of brief declarations of entry and exit of goods, and a reduction in physical and documentary controls, among others.

Monetary Costs for the Implementation of a Logistics Security Program
The implementation of a security program in the supply chain involves the adoption of measures, controls, tools, and resources aimed at preventing, detecting, and mitigating security risks to which they are exposed, and helping the supply chain recover from disruptions caused by criminal trends.Therefore, cargo owners and logistics service providers require the necessary resources to meet the minimum-security requirements for any logistics security program they wish to adopt, mainly in terms of monetary investments and time.
In general, monetary, and time costs are divided into two categories: (a) implementation costs to receive certification, and (b) costs to maintain certification [52].The implementation and maintenance costs depend on the socio-economic situation of the country and the economic sector to which the company belongs [50].Similarly, these security programs are designed for the participation of small, medium, and large companies that are part of the supply chains.
There are very few research studies estimating the implementation costs of the security measures required by security programs for certification and their subsequent annual maintenance costs.The first research conducted was a study on the BASC program in Latin America (2005)(2006)(2007) by researchers from the Cross-border Research Association (CBRA) through a survey targeted at 800 contacted BASC member companies, with 102 surveys receiving complete responses (response rate of 13% and a sampling error of 10%) [81].The survey covered 78% of member countries and represented companies engaged in various operations related to international trade (manufacturers, traders, port operators, logistics service providers, and others providing support services such as security surveillance and vehicle rentals).It included companies of different sizes and annual business volumes.The study concluded regarding BASC implementation costs that certification costs appear to be more expensive for companies with a small annual business volume (less than USD 50,000), while maintenance costs are proportionally more expensive for companies with higher business volumes, as shown in Table 13.In the same study [81], it establishes the measures of time and resources needed to implement the BASC program, as illustrated in Table 14.On the other hand, being a private organization, it has administrative fees that the World BASC Organization (WBO) charges to its members to cover the organization's operating costs.These administrative fees can vary from USD 800 to USD 2500 for certification, and from USD 800 to USD 2000 for annual maintenance [50].
Other authors, such as Varun et al. [82] conducted a case study of motivations, obstacles and company size associated with the C-TPAT program, where they compile a series of studies by different authors and the CBP body since 2006.The results reflected the monetary costs to receive certification and their average maintenance cost and time commitment for C-TPAT, as described in Table 15.
to manage homogeneous threats at the regional level and the operations of certified companies and intra-regional trade, as well as the promotion of Mutual Recognition Agreements (MRAs) for greater benefits.
• The private sector benefits from the BASC and ISO programs can be considered for future research studies as a source of customer-facing competitive advantages to secure and optimize global operations.• There is scope for a case study reviewing the benefits of the AEO program proposed by a country's customs authority versus the perception of benefits received by cargoowning companies and logistics service operators that adhere to this initiative.• The adoption of a maturity model to assess logistics security systems in global supply chains in Latin America and the Caribbean could derive opportunities to improve security and resilience to future disruptions in the context of supply chain security risk management.• Another opportunity is the application of logical and systematic methods for supply chain security risk assessment.

Managerial Implications, Discussion, and Conclusions
The objective of this paper was to present a description and analysis of the four main supply chain security programs available for Latin America and the Caribbean (C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO 28000), led by international organizations from the public and private sectors.The analysis was conducted based on a thematic content analysis methodology with a qualitative and quantitative approach, under a common framework to compare the four programs.It showed a high degree of similarity in the chapters and security objectives, with a similar structure to achieve them.These objectives were primarily represented in risk management, knowledge of business partners or associates, cargo and transportation unit security, physical security and access controls, handling, storage, and transportation processes, reliability of human resources, security training and threat awareness, and information technology security.
This work allows us, in the first instance, to fill this gap in the existing literature, through the dissemination and clarification of the good security practices offered by the different security programs (C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000) in the face of common threats in the region.This document systematically analyses these existing logistics security programs for Latin America and the Caribbean.It can become a guide for companies to have a clearer vision when selecting one or more logistics security programs, with the ultimate goal of strengthening the visibility processes of their global supply chains.It is novel, as there is no up-to-date analysis of the relationship between security programs (C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000) in the literature.To this end, a contribution table developed by the authors in the related literature is provided, listing the existing studies published over the last decade.Between 2001 (when the first security program was launched) and 2011, there was only one study conducted in 2009, by researchers Gutiérrez and Hintsa, from the Cross-border Research Association (CBRA) in Lausanne (Switzerland), in which they carried out a comparative analysis of nine global security initiatives, including the C-TPAT, AEO, BASC, and ISO 28000 programs, to establish their compatibility and identify the security measures that could be mandatory in the near future.
The SAFE Framework defines the guidelines for implementing the AEO program, which must be applied by the customs authorities of WCO member countries and required of companies that wish to voluntarily join the program.This initiative led each country's customs authorities in Latin America and the Caribbean to issue their own AEO program, resulting in a high degree of similarity among the programs, despite the SAFE Framework setting a standard for implementation.
Regarding the benefits obtained by companies through the adoption of a logistics security program, first and foremost, international recognition is achieved in the form of a company committing to supply chain security.Other benefits include facilitating foreign trade operations, gaining greater trust from authorities and stakeholders, participating in training activities, strengthening resilience and continuity of operations in the face of security incidents or unexpected events.
From the analysis of this work, it was shown that publicly led programs associated with customs authorities offer special benefits in customs procedures, including simplified procedures, reduced physical and documentary controls, and prioritized clearance and fast lanes.In terms of taxation and tariffs, these programs led by customs authorities represent financial advantages when paying taxes and tariffs for certified companies.
These security programs are designed for the participation of small, medium, and large companies that are part of the supply chains.The costs and implementation timelines vary according to the company's structure, infrastructure, and industry sector.Costs are associated with implementing tools, equipment, systems, controls, and security measures within their organizational processes and procedures.However, the costs encompass the certification process and the annual maintenance costs to maintain the recognition.The costs are also associated with the types of threats.The higher the risk of threats, the greater the need for implementing controls and security measures.For Latin America and the Caribbean, according to the analysis of the INTERPOL's 2022 summary report, the criminal trends in this region include organized crime, illicit trafficking, financial crimes, cybercrimes, and terrorism.These criminal activities dominate the global threat landscape and exploit global supply chains to carry out their illicit activities.
Based on this study, it is concluded that the implementation of these programs allows organizations to have broader visibility in global supply chains, which are increasingly fragile and complex due to security risks they are susceptible to.Similarly, technology plays a vital role in improving supply chain visibility and security [2].The exchange of information through the use of global positioning systems (GPS) in land freight vehicles, electronic security devices for containers, blockchain, the Internet of Things (IoT), the development of cargo tracking platforms and transportation means, among others, have become prerequisites for traceability and tracking of goods, providing a clear view of the logistics activities throughout the supply chain.
This study provided supply chain and logistics managers and researchers, as well as decision makers in cargo-owning companies and logistics service providers with firsthand knowledge for choosing and/or complementing one or more logistics security management systems in their organizational processes to strengthen security and resilience in their operations within the global supply chain.
To sum up, it is important to recommend to practitioners that have multiple implemented logistics security programs not to eliminate any of them due to cost issues.While it is true that the analyzed programs maintain great similarity in their contents, the continuity of one program would enable the maintenance of the other program and vice versa.It also strengthens controls and best practices transferred between programs by private and public organizations, which ultimately translates into greater resilience and security for mitigating security risks associated with the supply chain.Failing to do so would result in higher risk costs compared to the investment and maintenance costs of the adopted programs.

( 1 )
Customs Trade Partnership Against Terrorism (C-TPAT) program of the U.S. Cu toms and Border Protection (CBP); (2) Business Alliance for Secure Commerce (BASC) program of the BASC World Organ ization (WBO); (3) Authorized Economic Operator (AEO) program of the World Customs Organizatio (WCO); (4) International Standards for Supply Chain Security Management ISO 28000 and ISO 28001 of the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Evolution of the main public and private sector security programs (source: own elabora tion after the works of [61-67]).

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Evolution of the main public and private sector security programs (source: own elaboration after the works of [61-67]).C-TPAT (Customs Trade Partnership Against Terrorism) is a voluntary program of partnership between the public and private sectors that recognizes that CBP (U.S. Customs and Border Protection) can provide the highest level of cargo security only through close cooperation with key stakeholders in the international supply chain.The C-TPAT program comprises two different program divisions: C-TPAT Security and C-TPAT Trade Compliance.The C-TPAT Security program is designed to protect the global commercial industry from terrorists and smugglers by pre-screening its participants.It applies to U.S. and non-Canadian importers, U.S. exporters, customs brokers, consolidators, port and terminal operators, air, sea, and land cargo carriers, third-party logistics providers (3PLs), Mexican long-haul truck carriers, and Canadian and Mexican manufacturers.The

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. General process diagram of a thematic content analysis.Adapted from [60].

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. General process diagram of a thematic content analysis.Adapted from [60].

4. 1
Have documented procedures and measures to identify and control access of people and vehicles to the facilities.4.2 Provide all related personnel with an identification or access device for entry to the facilities.4.3 Require visitors to identify themselves for entry to the facilities and provide them with an identification or temporary access device.4.4 Check persons, vehicles, packages, bags, and other objects upon entering and leaving the facilities.4.5 Must use alarm systems and/or video surveillance cameras to monitor, alert, record, and supervise the facilities and prevent unauthorized access to critical areas and cargo handling, inspection or storage areas.

2
Shall use security seals under the standards contained in the current ISO 17712 standard on containers and other sealable cargo units.

4
Ensure that the areas where containers and other cargo units (full or empty) are stored are secure and prevent unauthorized access and/or manipulation.

3
Must have tools to ensure traceability of the cargo from the point of filling abroad to the importer's headquarters or distribution point (upstream).

4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1
Must have a protocol to act and report suspicious activities or security incidents that affect the security of the supply chain to the competent authority.You must protect the physical and electronic documentation of your international supply chain operations.It shall have documented procedures for the selection and dismissal of personnel.It shall evaluate the background of employees in national and international lists to ensure their reliability.Maintain updated employee work history, including personal and family data, photographic records, and background checks, among others.Must carry out home visits and socioeconomic studies of its employees to detect unjustified changes in their assets.Must have security provisions for the supply and handling of the supplies given to its employees.Have documented and sensitized IT security policies within the company to protect information technology (

Table 3 .
Certified companies in 2020 in the Americas and the Caribbean in logistics security programs C-TPAT, BASC, AEO, and ISO.
Data contained in Compendium of Authorized Economic Operator Programs, WCO 2020 edition, Survey of Authorized Economic Operator Programs in ALADI member countries with special emphasis on the requirements to obtain 2020 certification, The ISO Survey of Management System Standard Certifications 2020, and official pages of C-TPAT, BASC, and ISO.

Table 4 .
Status of operational and developing programs in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Table 4 .
Cont.Compendium of Authorized Economic Operator Programs, 2020 edition, and Study on Authorized Economic Operator Programs in ALADI member countries with special emphasis on the requirements to obtain 2020 certification.

Table 6 .
[75]e trends in the Americas and the Caribbean Region (source: own elaboration based on data from INTERPOL Report 2022[75]).

Table 7 .
Risks that affect that translate into security risks for global supply chains.Own elaboration.

Table 13 .
[81]age certification and maintenance costs for different types of companies according to their annual turnover (sample size: 90) (source:[81]).