Impact of Sports Education Model in Physical Education on Students’ Motivation: A Systematic Review

Background: Research has suggested that applying the Sport Education Model (SEM) in Physical Education (PE) increases students’ motivation. However, it is important to systematize this evidence to have a clearer idea. Therefore, this study aimed to analyze the impact of the SEM on the students’ motivation. Methods: A systematic review with a narrative synthesis was performed. In March 2021, an articles search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science. Eligibility criteria were: longitudinal or experimental study design; outcomes included PE settings; results reported the relationship between the SEM and students’ motivation. Results: Fourteen studies were included, totaling 2146 students. The majority of the studies indicated a significant association between the SEM and motivation, particularly in autonomy and more enjoyment toward PE. Conclusions: This review supports that the SEM has a positive impact on motivation. The SEM offers a wide range of opportunities for students to develop more self-determined motivated behavior in PE classes. Therefore, the SEM should be considered when developing or adapting existing PE programs to promote students’ intrinsic motivation to engage in physical activity.


Introduction
The Sport Education Model (SEM) offers the nearest approach to sports experience adapted to the school context [1]. The model was created because physical education (PE) classes should not be limited to teaching techniques and tactics from multiple sports. PE should make students cultivate their habits of exercising and improve their sports culture along the way [1]. The SEM is a curriculum and instructional model created to provide richer sports-related experiences for students during PE classes [2]. The model is organized around a series of characteristics, which are, (1) units are considered seasons, (2) students are members of intact teams, (3) participation in formal competition, (4) students maintain roles beyond players, (5) formal records are kept, and (6) students participate in a culminating event [2].
Motivation is important to influence students' learning [3]. Especially, intrinsic motivation has a positive impact on students' behavior and learning during PE [4]. Some studies related to intrinsic motivation in PE and sports have indicated that this construct is positively associated with self-effort and predisposition to participate in future physical activities [5,6]. For the teacher to improve these capacities in the students, they may impose tasks related to personal control or self-competence that will improve several adaptive responses to motivational imposes [7].
Most research acknowledges that the SEM as a more effective model than the traditional and direct instruction model in various factors like students' attitudes, motivation, or self-determination towards PE [8], mainly in low-performing students [9]. According to the self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation is promoted by fulfilling competence, autonomy, and relatedness [10]. The SEM principles are related to these concepts, which may explain why investigations have purposed it to be related to greater students' motivation than traditional PE models. For example, characteristics of the SEM, such as the festive finale, the student-centered approach and autonomy, engagement, and peer relationships in PE, can contribute to greater motivation [11,12]. In addition, the use of dynamic roles during the classes is viewed as an aspect with a very high relation to students' motivation [13]. Contrary, some research has proposed that the SEM focus on formal competition has a detrimental effect on students' motivation [14].
One of the objectives of PE is the increase of physical activity (PA) levels and motivation for PA in and out of school. Research suggests that students' motivation in PE following the SEM is significantly higher than students receiving traditional PE [8,9,15,16]. However, to better ascertain the role of the SEM on motivation, it is important to summarize the existing evidence. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the impact of the SEM on the motivation for PA.

Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria
The review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [17] and is presented in Figure 1. Articles that studied the relationship between the SEM in PE classes and students' motivation served as a basis for this review [8,9,18]. Motivation is important to influence students' learning [3]. Especially, intrinsic motivation has a positive impact on students' behavior and learning during PE [4]. Some studies related to intrinsic motivation in PE and sports have indicated that this construct is positively associated with self-effort and predisposition to participate in future physical activities [5,6]. For the teacher to improve these capacities in the students, they may impose tasks related to personal control or self-competence that will improve several adaptive responses to motivational imposes [7].
Most research acknowledges that the SEM as a more effective model than the traditional and direct instruction model in various factors like students' attitudes, motivation, or self-determination towards PE [8], mainly in low-performing students [9]. According to the self-determination theory, intrinsic motivation is promoted by fulfilling competence, autonomy, and relatedness [10]. The SEM principles are related to these concepts, which may explain why investigations have purposed it to be related to greater students' motivation than traditional PE models. For example, characteristics of the SEM, such as the festive finale, the student-centered approach and autonomy, engagement, and peer relationships in PE, can contribute to greater motivation [11,12]. In addition, the use of dynamic roles during the classes is viewed as an aspect with a very high relation to students' motivation [13]. Contrary, some research has proposed that the SEM focus on formal competition has a detrimental effect on students' motivation [14].
One of the objectives of PE is the increase of physical activity (PA) levels and motivation for PA in and out of school. Research suggests that students' motivation in PE following the SEM is significantly higher than students receiving traditional PE [8,9,15,16]. However, to better ascertain the role of the SEM on motivation, it is important to summarize the existing evidence. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the impact of the SEM on the motivation for PA.

Search Strategy and Inclusion Criteria
The review was performed following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines [17] and is presented in Figure 1. Articles that studied the relationship between the SEM in PE classes and students' motivation served as a basis for this review [8,9,18]. The inclusion criteria were: (a) prospective and experimental study design (study design criterion); (b) effect of the SEM on students' motivation during PE classes (relationship criterion); (c) PE students (participants' criterion); (d) articles published in English, Portuguese, or Spanish (language criterion); (e) articles were left out if they did not meet inclusion criteria or did not have findings associated to the inclusion criteria (exclusion criteria).
In March 2021, a search was made in PubMed, the Web of Science, and Scopus. The search was performed in the two databases using the terms "SEM" OR "sport education model" OR "sport education" AND "motivation" OR "student behaviour" OR "attitude" OR "interest" OR "predisposition" OR "self-determination-theory". Two reviewers screened titles and abstracts to identify articles that met the inclusion criteria. Five authors read the articles and decided whether they should be included in the analysis or excluded. The studies inclusion decision was consensual. In cases of disagreement, the decision was made by consent.

Data Extraction
The authors' name, year of publication, study design, participant characteristics, country, methods of SEM evaluation, instruments to assess motivation, and main findings were extracted from each article. Five authors carried out the extraction, and another author verified coding.

Synthesis of Results
The review analyzed the relationship between the SEM and students' motivation. Among the studies, the different parameters analyzed were homogeneous. The study details, including design, measures, sample size, participant characteristics, and results, are presented consistently.

Overview of Articles and Study Background
The majority of the 14 studies were performed in Spain (9), China (3), United States (1), and England (1). All, except one study [19], used a theoretical framework of motivation in their investigation. All 14 studies included descriptions of the SEM, discuss the relationship between the SEM and motivation and enjoyment in PE (8), social affiliation (2), PA participation (2), and some other motivational outcomes (7). The greatest number of articles achieved this assessment criterion.
All studies but two [13,22] included more than one class regarding PE settings. Three studies did not specify how many classes are included [15,16,20]. Eight studies included one school, two included two schools [23,25], while four look at the setting of secondary educational centers, instead of regular schools [15,18,20,22].

Program Design and Implementation
Seven studies used a quasi-experimental design [8,9,13,18,20,22,25] and three nonequivalent control-group designs [14,19,23] to investigate the motivational impact of a the SEM program by including one intervention and one control group, except for one study that had three different intervention groups [8]. Two studies used a pre-experimental pre-/posttest design [15,16], one study used a crossover design [21], and another one used a cluster randomized study design [24].
The sport education programs were frequently delivered by one to three teachers with teaching experience. The majority of teachers had more than five years of teaching experience. However, only less than half of them had prior teaching experience in sports education.

Main Results
Thirteen studies (93%) reported a significant relationship between the SEM and students' motivation [8,9,[13][14][15][16][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] (Table 1). Higher autonomy and more enjoyment toward PE sessions were associated with the SEM. Furthermore, the SEM promoted an inclusive PE learning environment [16,25] and showed that students became more interested than direct instruction or the traditional education model [19,21]. However, in one study, the students' motivation to practice sports was not affected by the SEM [18]. Table 1 offers an overview of the 14 studies included in the review. This hybrid SE/TGfU could improve the students' motivation during the PE classes, particularly those who showed an early low or moderate self-determined motivation at the beginning of the intervention. This model could bring more positive experiences to the students and be more inclusive.

Gil-Arias, Harvey, Cárceles, Práxedes and Del Villar [21] Spain
A crossover design was utilised, using the technique of counterbalancing. 55 students (M age = 15.45 ± 0.41, min. 27 females from Secondary Education school. The intervention was conducted over eight weeks (two months) for a total of 16 lessons and focused on the team sports of volleyball and ultimate frisbee.
One group experienced a hybrid SE/TGfU unit, followed by a unit of direct instruction. A second group had the units in the opposite order.
Perceived Locus of Causality. Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale. Enjoyment in Sport Scale. The intention to be physically active scale was administered to participants.
A hybrid model of TGfU/SE stimulated increases in autonomy, relatedness, competence, autonomous motivation, enjoyment, and intention to be more active compared to direct instruction. A SE-based badminton teaching unit was conducted over 10 weeks.

Elective Motivation Scale of Physical Education Curriculum (EMSPEC).
Students' elective motivation toward PE improved and was higher than those who received direct instruction. The SEM also increased the elective motivation of low-performing students.

Achievement Goal Questionnaire-Physical Education (AGQ-PE). Friendship Goals in Physical Education
Questionnaire. Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale (BPNES).
Both the SEM groups reported improvements over time in autonomy, competence, and relatedness to others, versus the only improvement in autonomy in the traditional model. The SEM was shown to be more effective than the traditional method at the motivational and attitudinal levels. the SEM produced an oriented climate to the task. Dynamic roles were shown as a powerful methodological strategy for students' motivation.
Students in the SEM had significantly higher post-intervention enjoyment and perceived effort than those taught with the traditional PE approach.
Four 25-lesson seasons of floor hockey, volleyball, team handball, and basketball were taught using the SE approach.
The SEM group reported greater increases in perceived effort and enjoyment of the program than the students taught within the multi-activity model. Those positive affective outcomes were enabled by the development of more autonomous forms of motivation.

Discussion
This systematic review aimed to analyse the SEM on students' motivation. The results of 13 articles included in this study reveal a significant relationship between the SEM and students' motivation, reporting greater autonomy and more enjoyment during PE sessions and an inclusive PE learning environment. Only one article states that motivation for sports practice is not affected by the SEM.
This research collectively offers practical implications for both students and teachers during their PE classes. Starting with the students, we found that the implementation of the SEM facilitates the autonomy-supportive instructional context during classes [26]. The students show a significant decrease in their perception of a disempowering motivational climate in their classes and improving their PA levels [24]. Therefore, the SEM is seen as a model which improves students' motivational needs [8,9,15]. the SEM is considered efficient in developing students' self-determination motivation [14,24,26]. This motivation is related to more autonomy satisfaction and a better learning experience [27][28][29][30]. Additionally, the SEM can expose students to an opportunity to work as a team. Research indicates that teamwork is a key factor for improving motivation to learning [31], giving students an opportunity to develop their sense of responsibility [19].
It is important to observe that the teachers' implementation of the model is a gamechanger in the success of the intervention. The primary goal of the SEM is to develop competent sportspersons [1]. Still, the level of compliance with the model's critical factors to establish an authentic teaching-learning context requires that teachers follow a welldefined intervention protocol. This directly impacts students' success, especially in skill and tactical performances [14]. Concerning the motivational component, teachers may use different strategies like giving additional points during the season to reinforce the importance of fair play [8]. Importantly, promoting teams for a whole season, which can provide positive and constructive feedback to their colleagues, is central to ensure that the principles of the fair-play are established [28].
This study reinforces the idea that the SEM can significantly improve students' motivation and engagement throughout PE classes. Therefore, the SEM should be considered when developing or adapting existing PE programs in order to promote intrinsic motivation, and possibly present and future engagement in PA. For that to happen, teachers must adapt their approach to PE by following key critical features to the SEM development in schools. Teachers give students a deeper approach to each sport, and that fact makes them improve and know better all situations that occur in that specific sport. Another point is the competition and the teams being structured at the beginning of the year, which makes them improve, not only by themselves but by improving the team as a group, to have better results [2].
Summarizing, this review supports that the SEM positively impacts motivation, which keeps the students' predisposition to be active and mentally ready to improve at each PE class. Thus, the SEM seems to enhance the current PA and promote some sports habits for their future. Dynamic roles used throughout PE classes make the students more motivated because they can perform a role where they are good and give effective help to their team [13]. These findings are of importance and reflect the potential of the SEM.
Some limitations have to be to be acknowledged for future research. First, the sample size in most of the studies analyzed was considered small. As a result, it would be necessary to include many students from different schools in future studies. By increasing the sample, more significant differences may emerge due to the improved statistical power. Moreover, most studies investigated team sports in SE programs. Only three studies used individuals' sports to apply the pretend methodology. Therefore, more research is necessary to study whether individual sports in the SEM leads to different results from team sports. Most studies included teachers with no previous experience with the SEM. Consequently, differences in the study design may serve as a confounding factor because the motivational styles of different teachers can cause differences in students' motivational outcomes. The extent to which the teacher employs autonomous and controlling behaviors could be studied to offer a potentially richer picture of why some groups may not demonstrate similar changes in motivation to others. Therefore, information about the teacher-created motivational climate should be looked at for potential differences in the motivational impacts of SE taught by different teachers. Regarding data collection, the effects of the intervention were evaluated through self-reported questionnaires. Hence, future studies should use other measurement methods, such as qualitative and observational methodology. Moreover, collecting and analyzing objective data such as motor skills, physical fitness, and PA could provide more evidence on the actual behavioral changes resulting from the impacts of SE. In addition, the application of teaching models was applied during six to eight weeks in most of the studies, one season. It would be valuable to conduct longitudinal studies to investigate students' motivation over a longer time frame. Longer periods should be used in future studies, especially for post-assessment after an intervention. More follow-up data can show long-term changes in motivational outcomes beyond the instant effects of SE.

Conclusions
This review shows that the SEM offers a large range of opportunities for students to develop more self-determined motivated behaviour in PE class with high levels of responsibility and engagement. In this aspect, the SEM can be considered a useful methodological instrument to change the current trend of declines in motivation and participation in PA by adequately implementing the SEM in PE classes.