The Influence of Smartphone Use on Tweens’ Capacity for Complex Critical Thinking

The spread of modern technologies exposes many people to a high level of ambiguous and misleading information that can impact people’s judgments and worldviews. This happens especially in a phase of life such as preadolescence when children are particularly sensitive to external conditioning. Critical thinking can be seen as the first line of defense against misleading information. However, little is known about the consequences of media use on the critical thinking skills of tweens. In this study, we evaluated the effects of problematic smartphone use on the various stages of critical thinking, comparing high and low tween smartphone users. The results confirm the main hypothesis, namely, that problematic smartphone use is related to the ability to think critically. There was a significant difference between high and low users in the third phase of critical thinking: evaluation of sources.


Introduction
In contemporary society, media have become an integral part of every person's daily life, assuming the characteristic of pervasiveness: even if an individual decides not to interact actively and intentionally with such devices, they can be unintentionally exposed to the information therein reported [1]. We are constantly overwhelmed by a high flow of available, real-time information [2]. Contrary to other digital devices such as computers that need a workstation for use, smartphones are easily accessible without time and space limitations [3]. This renders them extremely convenient: the distribution of smartphones in the world has reached 85%, and 6.8 million people possess at least one smartphone they use assiduously [4]. However, smartphone problematic use, defined as an inability to regulate one's use of the smartphone, can influence people's physical and mental health [5]. Despite their many advantages, problematic smartphone use can lead to problems in daily life, including sleep disturbances, impaired empathy and emotional intelligence, difficulty adapting, and reduced academic and work performance [6][7][8]. Negative effects also affect cognition. Several studies have associated the use of smartphones with reduced attentive and mnemonic capabilities [9], increased impulsivity, and deficits in inhibitory control [10,11], as well as worse performance in reasoning tasks [12]. Problematic smartphone use can supplant thought processes and induce cognitive avarice [13]. In fact, people who use smartphones do not devote mental efforts to carrying out cognitive activities, as there are several applications that integrate a wide range of them [14]. Some research has shown how these effects are amplified in younger-aged individuals, such as children and adolescents [15,16]. This is worrying considering that the use of digital technologies with reference to smartphones has increased in tweens, i.e., 9-13-year-olds [17]. On the other hand, in the online world, anyone can propose their own truth, and this leads to greater difficulty in tracing reliable sources [18]. Researchers have conceptualized fake news in different ways while attributing it almost the same meaning. McGonagle [19] has Table 1. Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto evaluation.
1. How much time per day do you spend using these technology devices? * and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  1. How much time per day does your child spend using these technology devices? * 1 2 3 4 2. Your child feels lost without his smartphone 1 2 3 4 3. Your child spends more time on his smartphone than he intends to 1 2 3 4 4. Your child checks his smartphone frequently throughout the day 1 2 3 4 5. Your child uses his smartphone during meals or other social events 1 2 3 4 6. He has trouble putting his smartphone down, even when he knows he should 1 2 3 4 1 and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by par and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 par pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, m ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding q tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer th lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the sec passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests w used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consistin 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). F internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurem was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the question the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compare make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tab and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation. accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same quest naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compa and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by par and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 par pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, m ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding q tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer th lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the sec passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests w used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consistin 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). F internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurem was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the question the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compare make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tab and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same q naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were co and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent day ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom w school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and correspondi tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answe lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for th passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially ad self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance te used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted con 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (alway internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this meas was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sam sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent u smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionn adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the que the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then com make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluat  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the sa naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations we and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declar and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selecte pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequen ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroo school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The tes ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner prov olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresp tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and a lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated f passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used speciall self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performan used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (a internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the fina sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spe smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same ques adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone u and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-eva  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same quest naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compa and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by par and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 par pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, m ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding q tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer th lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the sec passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests w used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consistin 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). F internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurem was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the question the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compare make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tab and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same q naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were co and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent day ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom w school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and correspondi tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answe lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for th passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially ad self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance te used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted con 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (alway internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this meas was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sam sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent u smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionn adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the que the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then com make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluat  accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the sa naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations we and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declar and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selecte pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequen ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroo school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The tes ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner prov olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresp tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and a lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated f passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used speciall self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performan used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (a internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the fina sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spe smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same ques adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone u and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-eva  questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While par accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same quest naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compa and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by par and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 par pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, m ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding q tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer th lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the sec passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests w used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consistin 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). F internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurem was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the question the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compare make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tab and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same q naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were co and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent day ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom w school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and correspondi tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answe lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for th passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially ad self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance te used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted con 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (alway internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this meas was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sam sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent u smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionn adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the que the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then com make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluat  questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. W accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the sa naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations we and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declar and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selecte pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequen ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroo school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The tes ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner prov olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresp tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and a lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated f passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used speciall self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performan used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (a internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the fina sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spe smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same ques adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone u and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-eva  vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelimin questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While par accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same quest naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compa and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by par and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 par pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, m ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding q tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer th lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the sec passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests w used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consistin 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). F internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurem was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the question the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compare make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tab and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.  vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a pre questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same q naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were co and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent day ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom w school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and correspondi tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answe lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for th passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially ad self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance te used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted con 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (alway internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this meas was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sam sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent u smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionn adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the que the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then com make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluat  vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. W accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the sa naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations we and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declar and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selecte pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequen ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroo school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The tes ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner prov olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresp tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and a lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated f passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used speciall self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performan used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (a internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the fina sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spe smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same ques adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone u and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-eva

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaration of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only after tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the investigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminary questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While parents accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same questionnaire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared, and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by parents and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 participants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, meetings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within the school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was conducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each adolescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding questions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the related questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the second passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted for self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests were used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting of 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measurement was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample consisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using the smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire was adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions of the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared to make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables 1  and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Declaratio of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and only afte tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did the in vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a preliminar questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While paren accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same question naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were compared and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by paren and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 partic pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days, mee ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom within th school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing was con ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided each ad olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding que tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer the re lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the secon passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adapted fo self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance tests wer used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consisting o 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measuremen was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final sample con sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent using th smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnaire wa adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the questions o the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compared t make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. Tables and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluation.

Procedure
The investigation was carried out following the principles stated in the Decla of Helsinki. Each participant voluntarily agreed to participate in this study, and on tweens' parents were asked for written informed consent and it was received did vestigation begin. The sample was recruited through the administration of a prelim questionnaire lasting about 15 min aimed at detecting media usage habits. While p accompanied their children to school, teachers asked them to fill out the same qu naire adapted for hetero-evaluation. The results of both administrations were com and 23 participants were excluded based on the discrepancy of hours declared by p and children. The highest and lowest smartphone users were then selected (50 p pants with the highest results and 50 with the lowest results). In subsequent days ings in presence were planned. The participants were invited to a classroom with school premises where they underwent a 60 min CT assessment test. The testing w ducted in the morning between 9:00 AM and 12:00 PM. The examiner provided ea olescent with the necessary materials containing two passages and corresponding tions. The tweens were instructed to read the first passage attentively and answer lated questions after finishing the reading. This process was then repeated for the passage.

Measurements
In this study, two versions of the same questionnaire were used specially adap self-assessment and hetero-assessment smartphone use of tweens. Performance test used to assess CT skills.

Measurement of Smartphone Use
To assess the intensity of smartphone use, a questionnaire was adapted consis 6 items with responses based on a 4-point Likert scale, from 1 (never) to 4 (always) internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.81. The aim of this measur was to identify the highest and lowest smartphone users; therefore, the final samp sisted of the highest and lowest scores for the number of hours spent usi smartphone each day. In order to further confirm the sample, the same questionnai adapted and administered to the parents of the preteens. The answers to the quest the two self-evaluation and external evaluation questionnaires were then compa make an even more precise distinction between high and low smartphone users. T and 2 show Smartphone Use Questionnaire adapted for auto and hetero-evaluatio

Measurement of Critical Thinking
A CT assessment test was customized, incorporating the 5 phases identified earlier in this research paradigm. Two tracks, namely, track 1 and track 2, were designed for the purpose. Track 1 presented a social dilemma associated with the selection of lower secondary school, while track 2 contained a mathematical problem, which was calibrated based on the subject knowledge of the participants. Both tracks consisted of relevant information crucial for solving the problem, as well as misleading, redundant, or inconsistent information. Each track concluded with a question that encapsulated the reasoning objective. Participants were instructed to read the tracks carefully and attempt to solve the given problem by answering a set of questions. To be precise, three questions were presented for each of the five CT phases (Tables 3 and 4). An example question related to the inferential phase was "on what evidence do you base your result?". Also, in this case, a score of 1 was assigned to each correct answer related to questions proposed for the evaluation of the specific phases of CT. On the contrary, a score of 0 was assigned to each incorrect answer related to the questions proposed for the evaluation of the specific phases of CT. Therefore, also in this case, for each CT phase a total score was assigned between 0 (subject answered all questions incorrectly) and 3 (subject answered all questions correctly). From internal consistency analysis, Cronbach's alpha was α = 0.83. The two texts were presented in a randomized order to ensure counterbalance. The tracks included in the study are as follows:  Track 1-Social problem Giuseppe has to decide which lower secondary school to attend. His friend Anna told him that the Technical Institute on Via Gramsci has a well-equipped computer lab, and she thinks Giuseppe would do well there. In the mailbox, Giuseppe, who often observes his father growing a small vegetable garden and sometimes he helps him with enthusiasm, finds a flyer that summarizes a scientific high school where a very good philosophy professor teaches. Technical Institute students were invited to a meeting to talk about their own school, organized by a group of parents with purple t-shirts, including Giuseppe's parents; professors are considered very open to dialogue and the fact that there is a well-stocked sandwich shop near the school is jokingly praised. Leafing through the newspaper, Giuseppe finds an interview with a linguistic high school principal, where the principal accentuates the vanguard of multimedia facilities and the presence of a library full of texts on biology and chemistry. Francesco wants to go to school with Giuseppe and he would like to be a chemical expert. So, he tells Giuseppe that his brother (who has good grades and likes his school) does not get on well at the Agricultural Institute. Anna, who likes Giuseppe, wants to enroll in the technical institute of Via Gramsci, although it is not at the technological forefront. Giuseppe is a lazy reader and does not like to travel. He likes playing with electric trains, but one day, he got an electric shock and since then he has had little to do with electricity. He is a great goalkeeper and hates computers. On Sunday he goes to visit his grandparents in the countryside where they own a farmhouse surrounded by land that they have always cultivated. He enjoys getting on the tractor driven by his grandfather who shows him the farm. A few years earlier, Giuseppe's aunt gave him a game for little chemists, which Giuseppe used about three times. If you were Giuseppe, which school would you choose?
Track n. 2 (mathematical problem) One day Wizard Zurlì meets King Alessandro and asks him: "Sire, how old are your 3 children?" And the King answered: "Do you not know? Didn't you ask anyone on the way here?" Then, the wizard replies: "My dear King, you should know that first I went to the old forgetful Smemo, who rarely visits these lands. He told me about your 3 children, saying that one son was younger than Teo, one was older, and one was probably the same age as Teo. I don't exactly remember your children's ages. So, I went to see your uncle Leonardo, who offered me some warm, fragrant tea in his house under the big tree". He told me he was so proud of his three grandchildren, but being a strict man, the age of each never disclosed, only the product of their ages: 36. I told him "Dear friend, it's not enough for me". He replied with a smile." I know, but I have some other things to do". So, I picked some strawberries in the woods. Then I went to Ranco, who served me a cup of coffee. He told me that your name is Beniamino, that your children have grown up and gone to the lands to the north. He asked me if I liked the beer, and he went to sleep. Then I met Ben, great mushroom hunter and your dear companion of youth. We walked around, I told him about my journey and my encounter with your uncle Leonardo, and of my deep curiosity. He told me that the sum of your 3 children's ages is 13. I started thinking, but I realized that I couldn't determine the exact solution. When I was about to rail against him, I realized he had gone into the woods "I'm too distracted, I said to myself". The King, amused by the story of the wizard, says: "My dear Zurlì, you're so distracted. But now that you're here, you'll know the truth. I won't tell you the solution, but I'll give you some other information. Know therefore that the youngest are twins". Zurlì, satisfied, finally finds the 3 ages. What do you think these are?

Statistical Analysis
The statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 24.0 software (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The measurement parameters were the mean of correct responses (CRs) for each critical thinking (CT) phase of every participant (high and low smartphone users) in each experimental condition (social and mathematical context). Descriptive statistics were provided for each variable. Regarding the first hypothesis, which states that adolescents who frequently use smartphones would exhibit lower levels of CT performance than those who use them less frequently, a three-factor split-split plot design was employed. This design consisted of two within-subjects factors and one between-subjects factor: 2 (groups: high vs. low smartphone users) X 2 (context: social vs. mathematical) X 5 (critical thinking phases: clarification, analysis, evaluation, inference, and self-monitoring), and for the first hypothesis, we analyzed the Group factor. To identify which stages of CT showed the most significant differences between high and low smartphone users, we considered the Phase factor and the interaction Group X Phase factor as the second objective. Lastly, to determine if there were any significant differences in CT in two distinct problem categories, namely, social and mathematical problems, we considered the Context factor and the interactions with it. An alpha level of 0.05 was set for all statistical tests. Whenever significant effects were observed, the effect size of the test was reported. We used partial eta squared p2 for ANOVA and Cohen's d Effect Size for the t-test. Additionally, probability values for repeated measures were adjusted using the Greenhouse-Geisser adjustment for non-sphericity. Table 5 shows the means (Ms) and standard deviations (SDs) related to correct performance on the five phases of CT in low and high smartphone users and in social and mathematical contexts. High smartphone users compared to low users show significant differences in the application of CT (F (1, 98) = 8.6, p < 0.001). Moreover, the phase factor shows significant effects (F (4, 362) = 14.508, p < 0.001). Despite high smartphone users showing lower scores at each stage, the most noticeable difference is in the third stage. Figures 1 and 2 show a sharp drop in the performance of high smartphone users in the evaluation of the source phase. Additionally, the interaction phases X Groups shows a significant effect (F (4, 361) = 5.73, p < 0.01). These data show that subjects reason differently in different phases of CT, depending on whether they are high or low media users. Instead, the context variable does not show significant differences. The high and low users do not differ in the indices of CT when answering the leading questions related to a social or mathematical context (F (1, 167) = 0.123, p = 0.72). Nevertheless, the interaction context X phases presents highly significant differences (F (4, 88) = 11.361, p < 0.001). If we consider the self-monitoring phase, we can see that in the social context, it is correctly performed by several subjects, which is in contrast to what happens in the mathematical context. This may indicate the high relevance that some stages take in one context rather than another.

Results
Children 2023, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14 significant differences (F (4, 88) = 11.361, p < .001). If we consider the self-monitoring phase, we can see that in the social context, it is correctly performed by several subjects, which is in contrast to what happens in the mathematical context. This may indicate the high relevance that some stages take in one context rather than another.

Discussion
In the present study, the CT skills of high and low smartphone users in adolescence were evaluated. The results confirmed the main hypothesis that problematic smartphone use is related to CT. Participants with a low exposure seem to be more reflective than participants with higher fruition of smartphones. This is consistent with the findings of Pérez-Rodríguez et al. [34] showing how exposure to media content reinforces heuristicbased reasoning, which is negatively associated with CT [30]. The data obtained further support our hypothesis, particularly as high smartphone users exhibited the poorest performance across all CT phases, including clarification, analysis, inference, and self-

Discussion
In the present study, the CT skills of high and low smartphone users in adolescence were evaluated. The results confirmed the main hypothesis that problematic smartphone use is related to CT. Participants with a low exposure seem to be more reflective than participants with higher fruition of smartphones. This is consistent with the findings of Pérez-Rodríguez et al. [34] showing how exposure to media content reinforces heuristicbased reasoning, which is negatively associated with CT [30]. The data obtained further support our hypothesis, particularly as high smartphone users exhibited the poorest performance across all CT phases, including clarification, analysis, inference, and self-monitoring, with the most significant discrepancy observed in the most challenging phase, source evaluation. This finding is in line with previous research, which suggests that errors during source evaluation increase the risk of making incorrect judgments due to unreliable information [56]. Another objective of this study was to examine whether there were any significant differences in critical thinking (CT) abilities between high and low smartphone users regarding two distinct problem types: social and mathematical. The study found that CT was better exercised in the social context than in the mathematical context. This is likely because, in more practical contexts, such as the social context, there are fewer cognitive resources involved, allowing for more resources to be allocated toward logical reasoning. Our results could also be explained based on cognitive load theory (CLT) [57]. As suggested by Fabio and Suriano [35], a high level of media exposure decreases working memory performance, leaving few cognitive resources available for CT.
Previous studies have shown that media use negatively affects the ability to think critically [58][59][60][61][62], but the impact of problematic smartphone use on Italian tweens has been little-studied. This study provides a novel insight into the impact of smartphone usage on the critical thinking (CT) skills of Italian tweens, which has not been previously explored in existing research that mainly examined CT development in children and adults, excluding tweens [63,64]. A unique aspect of this study is that it examines CT differences by analyzing specific phases (clarification, analysis, evaluation, inference, and self-monitoring) between higher and lower smartphone users, unlike previous research that only focused on studying CT in individuals with smartphone addiction [65,66]. We are aware of only one study that evaluated this relationship in the Chinese population [36]. Our work is a contribution to the generalization of the results as sociocultural characteristics shape the values and beliefs of people, which in turn affect behavior toward the news [67].

Limitations of the Study
Among the limitations of this study, we evaluated the effects of the intensity of daily use of the smartphone, neglecting the effects of using other media on CT. The effects of media use are multifactorial and depend on the type of media used and the amount and intensity of use, as well as the characteristics of the individual who uses them. Another limitation could be the statistical analysis. A structural equation model for contrast models would introduce a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between the variables and the underlying mechanisms that explain the result.
Another limitation could be the neglect of the measurement of individual characteristics and contextual factors that could mediate the effects of media use on CT.

Future Prospects
Future research should analyze and compare the effects of using additional digital devices or platforms, as well as consider intervening variables such as digital alphabetization or personality traits to outline a clearer picture of how CT phases are affected. More in depth, based on the limitations stated in the study, there are several future prospects for research. The first one, as we said, may be investigating the effects of using other media on CT: future studies can evaluate the effects of different types of media (e.g., TV, video games, and social media) on CT and compare them with the effects of smartphone use. This can provide a more comprehensive understanding of the impact of media use on cognitive abilities. The second could be to examine the role of individual characteristics: researchers can investigate how individual characteristics (e.g., age, gender, and personality traits) influence the relationship between media use and CT. This can help identify vulnerable populations who may be more susceptible to the negative effects of media use. With reference to social factors, future studies can explore the impact of contextual factors (e.g., socio-economic status, cultural background, and education) on the relationship between media use and CT. This can help identify the cultural and societal factors that may influence the effects of media use on cognitive abilities. The fourth could be the use of advanced statistical analysis; researchers can use advanced statistical models such as structural equation models to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the complex relationships between the variables and underlying mechanisms that explain the results. This can help provide more precise estimates of the effects of media use on CT.

Conclusions
The current paper yields two key findings: (1) individuals who use smartphones less problematically exhibit greater levels of reflection compared to those who use smartphones more frequently; (2) critical thinking about social issues appears to be easier than critical thinking about mathematical problems. Considering the importance of critical thinking as a valuable cognitive process in problem solving [68][69][70], educational institutions should implement targeted strategies to foster the development of this skill. Developing critical thinking abilities can help individuals overcome biases and thinking errors, leading to a more objective understanding of reality.