Spatial Reasoning Excellence: A Synergy of VanTassel-Baska’s Integrated Curriculum Model and Talent Development

: This manuscript explores the integration of spatial reasoning into K-12 education through the lens of Joyce VanTassel-Baska’s Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM) and a talent development approach. It emphasizes the significance of nurturing spatial reasoning components—visualization, rotation, orientation, and perception—for academic success, problem-solving, and career prospects, especially for academically talented students. Through collaboration with talent development strategies, including mentorship and differentiated instruction, this approach provides a dynamic, real-world-focused learning experience. Inclusive and designed to engage the educational community, it aims to prepare students for complex global challenges, highlighting the transformative power of tailored education in developing versatile societal contributors


Introduction
The landscape of gifted education has evolved over the years, transcending traditional boundaries to recognize and nurture diverse talents among exceptional learners.One facet of giftedness that has garnered increasing attention is spatial reasoning talent, a cognitive ability that enables individuals to visualize and manipulate spatial information.The significance of spatial reasoning lies not only in its intrinsic value but also in its pivotal role across various domains, including mathematics, science, engineering, and the arts.As educators strive to create inclusive and equitable learning environments, understanding and fostering spatial reasoning talents among gifted students emerges as a critical imperative.
Research indicates that spatial reasoning skills contribute significantly to problemsolving, innovation, and creativity [1] and are directly connected to success in STEM careers [2]; however, they are not often nurtured early on [3].The malleability of spatial reasoning skills has been demonstrated in very young learners [4,5] and in adolescent learners [6].Moreover, exceptional spatial ability at the age of 13 can predict creative and scholarly accomplishments for more than 30 years into the future [7].Individuals with heightened spatial reasoning skills often exhibit superior performance in tasks involving mental rotation, spatial visualization, and pattern recognition [8].Recognizing the potential of spatially gifted learners, educators are increasingly seeking evidence-based strategies to identify, nurture, and develop spatial reasoning talents within the framework of gifted education.
Spatial training is not widely incorporated into elementary school curricula [3].According to research [9], educational services frequently overlook the potential for success in spatially talented students.As a result, these students may encounter more significant academic difficulties than their gifted peers due to a lack of stimulation and a loss of love of learning [9].Exacerbating the problem, identifying spatially gifted students Educ.Sci.2024, 14, 716 2 of 13 is a complex task, and traditional assessment methods may not capture the nuances of their abilities [10,11].However, as spatial skills frequently indicate talent among students excelling in science and engineering [12], it is crucial to identify these students and nurture the development of their talents.Unfortunately, present methodologies for pinpointing intellectually precocious youth currently overlook approximately half of those within the top 1% in spatial ability [7].
To contextualize the significance of spatial reasoning in education, it is essential to underscore the interdisciplinary nature of this cognitive ability.Spatial reasoning is not confined to a single academic domain but permeates various subjects and professions.For instance, individuals with strong spatial reasoning skills in mathematics demonstrate enhanced problem-solving skills and a deeper understanding of geometric concepts [13].Similarly, in science and engineering, spatial reasoning plays a crucial role in visualizing, creating three-dimensional objects, and comprehending complex structures and systems [6,[14][15][16].Recognizing the broad implications of spatial reasoning underscores the need for tailored educational approaches that can nurture and harness these talents.

Understanding Spatial Reasoning
Embarking on the journey to integrate spatial reasoning into K-12 education demands a focused exploration of its key components and clarification of the terminology.In the context of K-12 education, understanding spatial reasoning is pivotal for talent development [9].By prioritizing its integration, educators aim to cultivate the essential cognitive skills required for students to navigate an increasingly complex world.This can be accomplished through tailored educational strategies, fostering the development of talent, and preparing students for the challenges they will encounter in their academic journeys and future careers.
The terminology used to describe the complex interactions, cognition, and manipulations of humans with space and objects has been inconsistent and confusing.To clarify the various terms, Harris [17] proposed a conceptual model of spatial terminology that supports ongoing research into the nuance of spatial reasoning.Spatial reasoning is an umbrella term that includes spatial abilities and spatial skills.Harris describes spatial ability as a capacity that exists in all people but is influenced by education, experiences, and environmental conditions.Spatial skills can be developed, similar to verbal capacity, although spatial ability includes differences in individuals' capacity.Harris [17] included spatial visualization, mental rotation, and spatial orientation as overlapping skills that should be developed (see Figure 1).loss of love of learning [9].Exacerbating the problem, identifying spatially gifted students is a complex task, and traditional assessment methods may not capture the nuances of their abilities [10,11].However, as spatial skills frequently indicate talent among students excelling in science and engineering [12], it is crucial to identify these students and nurture the development of their talents.Unfortunately, present methodologies for pinpointing intellectually precocious youth currently overlook approximately half of those within the top 1% in spatial ability [7].
To contextualize the significance of spatial reasoning in education, it is essential to underscore the interdisciplinary nature of this cognitive ability.Spatial reasoning is not confined to a single academic domain but permeates various subjects and professions.For instance, individuals with strong spatial reasoning skills in mathematics demonstrate enhanced problem-solving skills and a deeper understanding of geometric concepts [13].Similarly, in science and engineering, spatial reasoning plays a crucial role in visualizing, creating three-dimensional objects, and comprehending complex structures and systems [6,[14][15][16].Recognizing the broad implications of spatial reasoning underscores the need for tailored educational approaches that can nurture and harness these talents.

Understanding Spatial Reasoning
Embarking on the journey to integrate spatial reasoning into K-12 education demands a focused exploration of its key components and clarification of the terminology.In the context of K-12 education, understanding spatial reasoning is pivotal for talent development [9].By prioritizing its integration, educators aim to cultivate the essential cognitive skills required for students to navigate an increasingly complex world.This can be accomplished through tailored educational strategies, fostering the development of talent, and preparing students for the challenges they will encounter in their academic journeys and future careers.
The terminology used to describe the complex interactions, cognition, and manipulations of humans with space and objects has been inconsistent and confusing.To clarify the various terms, Harris [17] proposed a conceptual model of spatial terminology that supports ongoing research into the nuance of spatial reasoning.Spatial reasoning is an umbrella term that includes spatial abilities and spatial skills.Harris describes spatial ability as a capacity that exists in all people but is influenced by education, experiences, and environmental conditions.Spatial skills can be developed, similar to verbal capacity, although spatial ability includes differences in individuals' capacity.Harris [17] included spatial visualization, mental rotation, and spatial orientation as overlapping skills that should be developed (see Figure 1).visualization involves mentally manipulating two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects.This foundational skill allows individuals to conceptualize and understand spatial relationships.Another essential component is mental rotation, the ability to rotate objects mentally [18], which is crucial for tasks like interpreting maps or visualizing transformations.Spatial orientation, the understanding of one's position in space and the relationships between different objects, is equally important.Lastly, spatial perception involves interpreting and making sense of spatial information, such as distances, sizes, and shapes.To teach these components, it becomes evident that a comprehensive approach to K-12 education must encompass activities and strategies that nurture each facet of spatial reasoning.A more detailed description of each of the three components can be found below.

Components of Spatial Reasoning
Spatial reasoning involves several key components, including spatial visualization, mental rotation, spatial orientation, and spatial perception, which collectively contribute to an individual's ability to comprehend and manipulate spatial information [2,17,19].These components are essential for various cognitive tasks and are particularly relevant in fields such as mathematics, science, engineering, architecture, and design.

Spatial Visualization
Spatial visualization is the process of mentally manipulating and comprehending two-dimensional and three-dimensional objects [17,18].Battista et al. [20] define spatial visualization as involving "mentally creating and manipulating images of objects in space, from fixed or changing perspectives on the objects, so that one can reason about the objects and actions on them both when the objects are and are not visible" (abstract).Therefore, spatial visualization involves forming mental images of objects and their spatial relationships.In practical terms, individuals with strong spatial visualization skills can mentally rotate objects, manipulate shapes, and envision how different shape elements fit together in space.In daily life, individuals may demonstrate a proclivity for furniture placement in a room or landscaping a flower bed in a small garden.From a professional standpoint, this skill is crucial in fields like architecture, where architects must conceptualize and visualize structures before they are built.Spatial visualization is also associated with the ability to visualize the symmetry of atoms and the transformation of chemical compounds, a crucial skill in chemistry [1,21].Furthermore, mental folding, which necessitates visualization, has been shown to predict the understanding of force and motion in 5-year-olds [22].The aforementioned study utilized a novel computerized assessment of conceptions (i.e., The Hedgehog Game) about motion following Newton's second law in situations with multiple forces as a predictor of causality.Moreover, spatial visualization skills extend to digital environments, requiring individuals to navigate and manipulate 2D and 3D shapes in virtual spaces.Although the investigation into spatial visualization is longstanding, the seminal work by Piaget [23] laid the foundation for understanding how children develop the ability to form mental representations or images through an investigation and shed light on the cognitive processes involved.Specifically, the evolution of mental imagery evolves in different stages of childhood, shedding light on the progressive development of imaginal representation.

Mental Rotation
Mental rotation is the ability to rotate or manipulate objects mentally.The seminal study by Shepard and Metzler [24], titled "Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects", is often considered a foundational work in spatial cognition.In this study, the researchers explored mental rotation as a cognitive process.Their findings provided crucial insights into the mental processes involved in spatial reasoning, specifically the ability to mentally manipulate and rotate three-dimensional objects, laying the foundation for subsequent research in the field.Since then, researchers have learned that mental rotations are particularly relevant in tasks that involve interpreting maps, charts, and spatial relationships.
For example, sailors and explorers in historical contexts needed to mentally rotate maps to adapt to changing perspectives during navigation.Maps remain important in the modern era and vital as individuals interact with digital maps, virtual environments, and complex data visualizations.For example, the capacity to mentally rotate and manipulate information is crucial in fields like computer science, where professionals may need to manipulate complex three-dimensional models mentally.Moreover, individuals with proficient mental rotation abilities are usually more successful in manipulating 3D objects, including molecular rotations in chemistry classes [25].Intriguingly, Rahmawati et al. [26] discovered that mental rotation skills can be enhanced through augmented reality experiences in manipulating molecules, leading to a deeper understanding of chemistry concepts.

Spatial Orientation
Spatial orientation involves understanding one's position in space and the relationships between different objects.This component is essential for navigating through physical and digital environments.During the Industrial Revolution, significant changes in urban landscapes required individuals to develop spatial orientation skills using the measurement and technology of the era to comprehend and navigate complex configurations of factories, railways, and cities [27].Fast-forward a century, and fields like environmental psychology took off, producing works like Kevin Lynch's "The Image of the City" [28], a seminal work in urban planning that has had a lasting impact on urban planning and beyond.His findings and foundational insights paved the way for enhancing spatial reasoning talent development in K-12 education.By emphasizing cognitive mapping, legible environments, and positive spatial experiences, educators can create personalized and engaging learning environments that foster strong spatial cognition skills in students.In the contemporary context, spatial orientation is pertinent to activities such as using GPS navigation apps, understanding complex urban layouts, and navigating augmented reality environments.It encompasses the ability to interpret and navigate through diverse spatial contexts, from physical spaces to digital interfaces.

Spatial Perception
Spatial perception, as clarified by Golledge [29], is integral to the interpretation of spatial information, involving the comprehension of distances, sizes, and shapes.Golledge's work emphasizes the cognitive aspects of human wayfinding and the formation of cognitive maps, shedding light on how individuals mentally represent and navigate through spatial environments.This heightened understanding of spatial perception has significant implications for K-12 talent development, suggesting that fostering cognitive mapping skills and interpreting spatial relationships should be integral to educational strategies.By incorporating activities that enhance spatial perception, such as estimating distances or interpreting spatial configurations, educators can contribute to the development of a robust spatial reasoning skill set among students.
Collectively, these components contribute to an individual's spatial reasoning abilities, playing a crucial role in academic and professional success in a wide range of disciplines.As technology advances, these skills become increasingly relevant in the digital realm, emphasizing the need for individuals to adapt and excel in navigating complex spatial relationships in physical and virtual spaces.

Importance of Developing Spatial Reasoning Skills
The cultivation of spatial reasoning skills in modern-day education is paramount, influencing academic success, problem-solving acumen, and career prospects [30].In today's educational landscape, a robust emphasis on formal education continues, and spatial reasoning skills have emerged as pivotal for mastery in subjects such as mathematics and science.Modern curricula recognize the intergral role of spatical visualization and understanding, particularly with the prominence of K-12 geometric principles focused on spatial abilities supported by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Curriculum and Evaluation Standards for School Mathematics [31].Moreover, the current technological era places a premium on problem-solving abilities, especially in professional fields like programming, engineering, and systems design.Here, spatial reasoning skills prove indispensable.The evolution of specialized professions in architecture, engineering, and design underscores the contemporary relevance of spatial reasoning in career advancement.K-12 students who later matriculate into professional careers with strong spatial abilities find themselves well-positioned for future success in professions requiring adept visualization and manipulation of spatial configurations.Beyond specialized fields, the far-reaching presence of technology in the modern era further highlights the everyday applications of spatial reasoning.From using educational apps and designing digital art to engaging in coding games and participating in virtual reality experiences, students are constantly involved in activities that demand spatial thinking, reflecting this cognitive skill's pervasive nature in contemporary education.In essence, developing spatial reasoning skills in K-12 education is not merely an academic pursuit but a strategic preparation for the multifaceted challenges of the evolving world they face in adulthood.
Within the realm of K-12 education, there is a heightened need to foster spatial abilities, particularly among academically talented students.As these students navigate advanced subjects in mathematics and science, the cultivation of spatial reasoning skills becomes a critical component of their academic journey.Geometry, often a cornerstone of advanced mathematical disciplines, demands not only mathematical prowess but also a keen spatial understanding.For academically talented students pursuing specialized fields, the intricate problem-solving requirements underscore the importance of robust spatial reasoning skills.Recognizing and nurturing these talents is essential to providing academically advanced students with a well-rounded skill set that extends beyond traditional academic domains.By incorporating targeted spatial reasoning development strategies into their education, academically talented students can gain a competitive edge, enhancing their problemsolving capabilities and positioning themselves for success in both academic pursuits and future careers that demand advanced spatial abilities.

VanTassel-Baska's Integrated Curriculum Model
The Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM), initially conceptualized by VanTassel-Baska [32] and further expanded upon in subsequent publications, offers a theoretical blueprint for designing curricula tailored to the needs of gifted learners.This model emphasizes integrating advanced content, higher-order thinking processes, and connections to overarching themes and issues, forming the foundation of effective curriculum development (refer to Figure 1).Recognizing that optimal student learning occurs when each dimension-advanced content, processes/products, and overarching issues/themes/concepts-is highlighted within a specific curriculum unit, the ICM aligns curriculum design with the unique learning needs of gifted students.Derived from a deep understanding of the key characteristics of gifted students, the ICM addresses precocious learning abilities by incorporating advanced content and advocating for curricula that foster critical thinking and reasoning skills.The model also underscores the importance of making connections, focusing on overarching issues, themes, and concepts.These three integral components constitute the foundational framework for curriculum design and differentiation across all William and Mary units of study.The ICM, designed to provide a comprehensive and challenging educational experience, takes a holistic approach to education by emphasizing the integration of content, process, and product.From a holistic standpoint, it aims to provide gifted students with a unified and meaningful learning experience, promoting depth, complexity, interdisciplinary learning, and real-world application of knowledge.Differentiated instruction, flexible grouping strategies, and ongoing assessment methods aligned with the depth and complexity of the curriculum are key components of the ICM.Together, these well-researched approaches underpin the Integrated Curriculum Model [32][33][34][35][36][37].The interrelated dimensions of the ICM model [32] are visually depicted in Figure 2.
experience, promoting depth, complexity, interdisciplinary learning, and real-world application of knowledge.Differentiated instruction, flexible grouping strategies, and ongoing assessment methods aligned with the depth and complexity of the curriculum are key components of the ICM.Together, these well-researched approaches underpin the Integrated Curriculum Model [32][33][34][35][36][37].The interrelated dimensions of the ICM model [32] are visually depicted in Figure 2.

The ICM and Spatial Reasoning Development
John Feldhusen's early work on talent development [38] laid the groundwork for understanding and nurturing exceptional abilities in individuals.In this seminal publication, Feldhusen defined talent development as a systematic process aimed at identifying and fostering the potential of individuals to achieve high levels of competence in specific domains.His work highlighted the importance of providing tailored educational opportunities and support to facilitate the growth of these talents.Building on Feldhusen's foundational ideas [38], Subotnik et al.'s later expansion work [39] offered a more comprehensive framework that integrated contemporary psychology research.They broadened the concept of talent development to include a developmental perspective, emphasizing the dynamic nature of talent over time.Additionally, they stressed the significance of domain-specific talent, recognizing that giftedness manifests differently across various fields.Their work highlighted the importance of providing advanced content, differentiated instruction, and interdisciplinary experiences to support the holistic development of gifted learners, aligning closely with Feldhusen's early contributions to the field.
Joyce VanTassel-Baska's Integrated Curriculum Model shares common principles and approaches to talent development, as described by Feldhusen [38] and Subotnik et al. [39].They both emphasize the importance of considering individual differences, providing challenging and differentiated instruction, and fostering holistic development in gifted learners.Furthermore, the ICM is designed to foster high levels of cognitive and affective development, aligning well with the principles of talent development.The fusion of the ICM with a talent development approach lends itself to an impactful shift in spatial

The ICM and Spatial Reasoning Development
John Feldhusen's early work on talent development [38] laid the groundwork for understanding and nurturing exceptional abilities in individuals.In this seminal publication, Feldhusen defined talent development as a systematic process aimed at identifying and fostering the potential of individuals to achieve high levels of competence in specific domains.His work highlighted the importance of providing tailored educational opportunities and support to facilitate the growth of these talents.Building on Feldhusen's foundational ideas [38], Subotnik et al.'s later expansion work [39] offered a more comprehensive framework that integrated contemporary psychology research.They broadened the concept of talent development to include a developmental perspective, emphasizing the dynamic nature of talent over time.Additionally, they stressed the significance of domainspecific talent, recognizing that giftedness manifests differently across various fields.Their work highlighted the importance of providing advanced content, differentiated instruction, and interdisciplinary experiences to support the holistic development of gifted learners, aligning closely with Feldhusen's early contributions to the field.
Joyce VanTassel-Baska's Integrated Curriculum Model shares common principles and approaches to talent development, as described by Feldhusen [38] and Subotnik et al. [39].They both emphasize the importance of considering individual differences, providing challenging and differentiated instruction, and fostering holistic development in gifted learners.Furthermore, the ICM is designed to foster high levels of cognitive and affective development, aligning well with the principles of talent development.The fusion of the ICM with a talent development approach lends itself to an impactful shift in spatial reasoning education within schools.This is accomplished in several ways.The ICM begins with the identification of gifted learners across various domains, recognizing their unique abilities and potential.It promotes differentiation, enabling tailored instruction to match individual readiness and interests.The model offers opportunities for acceleration and enrichment, ensuring that gifted students are continually challenged and engaged.Interdisciplinary learning and real-world application of knowledge are key components, fostering a broader perspective and the ability to make meaningful connections.Moreover, the ICM prioritizes the social and emotional development of gifted students, encouraging resilience and a growth mindset.Professional development for educators is integrated to support effective implementation, recognizing the pivotal role of teachers in talent development.Above all, the ICM views talent development as a long-term journey, adapting to the evolving needs and potential of gifted learners throughout their educational pathways.
The ICM can go beyond merely acknowledging spatial abilities.By fostering depth, complexity, and interdisciplinary connections, the ICM inherently aligns with gifted learners' varied strengths and interests, which can include spatial reasoning.Imagine an elementary school spatial reasoning curriculum where students explore the fundamental principles of geometry and draw connections with art, architecture, navigation, force and motion, and energy.For example, students could be assigned the challenge of creating a solution for a real-world issue, such as designing a bridge tailored to specific environments to endure natural phenomena.For instance, a bridge in Florida would necessitate resilience against high winds, hurricanes, fast and stagnant water, heavy loads, and significant traffic.The assignment would involve designing and constructing the bridge to scale, selecting materials suitable for the environment, identifying the most structurally sound design and piers for anchoring, and calculating the requisite force (stress) the bridge must withstand.Students would apply spatial reasoning to design and construct the bridge to scale, choosing appropriate geometrical shapes for stability.They would also strategically position the bridge within the natural habitat, considering factors like traffic, environmental impacts, and costs.This interdisciplinary project could integrate content from science, engineering, mathematics, social studies, and art, fostering a holistic approach to problem-solving and creative exploration.The ICM would be used throughout this assignment by incorporating advanced content that will challenge and increase the depth and complexity of students' knowledge, concepts, and themes to provide connections across the domains of study (such as systems and system models; scale, proportion, and quantity; structure and function; energy and matter), and process and product where the focus is on the design, construction, and iterative revision of the bridge.Throughout this lesson, the ICM will become a dynamic framework that allows students to navigate the intricacies of spatial reasoning in a manner that resonates with their strengths and interests.

ICM and Early Identification for Talent Development
Integrating the ICM with talent development strategies begins with early identification processes.This critical step allows educators to discern and acknowledge students' unique spatial reasoning strengths and potential.Employing various assessment methods, such as spatial reasoning tests (e.g., Thurstone's Primary Mental Abilities Test (spatial visualization), Woodcock-Johnson Test of Cognitive Abilities, Torrence Test of Creative Thinking-Figural, Raven's Progressive Matrices, etc.), teacher evaluations of student activities, e.g., spatial puzzles, paper folding activities, map reading architectural design activities, building and manipulating physical models, designing and manipulating 3D objects using child-friendly software like Tinkercad, and portfolio reviews, schools can create a nuanced understanding of each student's spatial abilities.This early identification becomes the cornerstone for tailored talent development, ensuring that spatially gifted learners receive the attention and challenges commensurate with their abilities.Furthermore, recognizing that spatial reasoning is malleable [1,6,40], offering students early opportunities to develop their spatial reasoning skills becomes crucial.
Assessment plays a crucial role in identifying high potential and enables teachers to tailor learning experiences to match students' readiness levels [41].Transitioning into innovative assessment approaches, educators can augment traditional methods with dynamic assessment tools to gain a deeper insight into students' spatial reasoning abilities.Beyond static measurements, these tools offer a more authentic evaluation by simulating real-time scenarios.One example of such dynamic assessment tools involves virtual reality simulations and interactive spatial puzzles, providing a comprehensive understanding of how students navigate and manipulate spatial relationships in dynamic environments.This evolution in assessment aligns with the overarching integration of the ICM framework with talent development strategies, ensuring a nuanced identification and tailored approach for academically talented students with unique spatial reasoning strengths, a strategy supported by research [42].By prioritizing the process over the mere product, educators can assess the depth of students' understanding and their capacity to engage Educ.Sci.2024, 14, 716 8 of 13 with spatial concepts in dynamic and evolving environments.With this information, educators can work with students to facilitate their talent development through customized learning plans.

ICM and Customized Learning Plans
The ICM, with its emphasis on differentiation, dovetails seamlessly into the notion of personalized learning for spatial reasoning.For instance, a middle school student displaying an exceptional aptitude for spatial problem-solving might have a customized plan that involves advanced coursework, specialized projects, and opportunities to engage with professionals in the field.Considering the earlier-discussed bridge activity in this paper, enhancing a student's spatial reasoning could involve a combination of virtual and physical manipulation of the bridge materials.For a student interested in science, particularly environmental science, building the bridge virtually within its intended environment could allow for an assessment of ecological impact.Furthermore, involving practicing professionals throughout the process would provide the real-world context that gifted students both need and desire.This fusion of the ICM and personalized learning ensures that gifted learners not only navigate the depths of spatial reasoning but do so at a pace and in a manner that resonates with their strengths and interests.In parallel with the concept of customized learning plans within the ICM framework, the role of educators becomes pivotal in orchestrating a tailored approach for academically talented students with spatial reasoning strengths.A seamless fusion of the ICM and personalized learning not only guides the development of tailored plans for students but also highlights the crucial role of a competent and supportive teaching team in unlocking the complete potential of spatially gifted learners.For this to occur, educators need the necessary knowledge and skills to design and orchestrate this type of learning [43].

Enrichment Programs and Extracurricular Activities
The philosophy of talent development finds resonance in creating learning environments that extend beyond conventional classrooms [44].Learning outside the K-12 classroom is critical to developing talent [45].Building upon the integration of enrichment programs and extracurricular activities within the ICM framework, schools, parents, and the community can take a transformative step toward nurturing spatially gifted students.Curriculum models that incorporate ICM ensure that students delve into advanced content, explore connections through concepts and themes, and actively participate in the processes of learning, problem-solving, and product creation.University programs, nonprofit organizations, and extracurricular activities offered during after-school or summer sessions can provide these opportunities for students.For example, university programs offer opportunities for students to enhance their learning in an environment designed for advanced learners, marked by increased challenges and an accelerated pace of learning within their specific area of interest and talent [46].Online enrichment programs can provide opportunities for students to collaborate with parents and instructors, guiding them in self-directed learning.Additionally, schools can establish extracurricular programs to nurture talent development in spatial reasoning, such as robotics and/or coding clubs, engineering clubs, mathematics clubs, and maker spaces.
As an example, consider the establishment of a "Spatial Design Challenge" club in a high school-a tangible manifestation of this ethos.This type of club could offer a dynamic platform for students to engage in hands-on spatial projects and collaborate with industry mentors.Activities could include architectural design projects, virtual reality and game design endeavors, artistic spatial installations, field trips to architectural landmarks, guest speaker sessions, collaborative design competitions, practical workshops, community engagement projects, portfolio development guidance, and exhibitions.These types of multifaceted experiences not only nurture students' spatial reasoning abilities but also inspire creativity and provide valuable insights into potential careers in architecture, design, and related fields.It could also facilitate collaboration with mentors from the architecture or Educ.Sci.2024, 14, 716 9 of 13 game design fields.This dynamic intersection underscores the holistic impact of integrating the ICM with talent development initiatives, ensuring that spatially gifted learners not only grasp advanced concepts but also thrive in applying their knowledge within authentic, real-world contexts.

Mentorship Programs and Real-World Applications
While mentorship is not explicitly stated as part of the ICM, it can be considered an important supplementary ICM strategy in the broader context of talent development, realworld application, and education for gifted students.Mentorship programs can provide personalized guidance, support, and opportunities for students to develop their talents further, aligning with the overall goals of the ICM to enhance learning experiences and foster student growth.Moreover, expanding the purview of mentorship programs within the ICM framework can unlock a realm of transformative experiences for spatially gifted learners.The ICM's dedication to authentic assessments and real-world applications aligns and integrates effortlessly with the concept of mentorship, wherein students engage alongside professionals in spatial design or related fields.Consider the scenario of a gifted high school student passionate about urban planning.In collaboration with a local planning department, a mentorship program provides this student with an invaluable opportunity to immerse themselves in city design, contribute to ongoing projects, and gain insights into the practical implications of spatial reasoning.Here, the ICM serves as a conduit, aligning the principles of the framework with mentorship opportunities that transcend theoretical understanding to practical application.Yet, the narrative extends further into the global arena, where mentorship programs can incorporate diverse perspectives.By collaborating with professionals from different cultural contexts, students not only broaden their understanding of spatial reasoning applications but also enhance their adaptability in a globalized world.This example illustrates the symbiotic relationship between mentorship programs, the ICM framework, and the broader goal of talent development, emphasizing a holistic preparation for real-world challenges and opportunities.It is crucial to emphasize the significance of developing mentorship programs with younger students.The earlier, the better.

Differentiated Instruction
Embracing the philosophy of differentiated instruction within the ICM framework transforms not only into an educational ideology but also a practical strategy tailored to the diverse profiles of spatial reasoning strengths among gifted learners.For example, within a middle school science class, differentiation manifests not as tiered instruction but through tapping into various talent domains to address different strengths and interests.Take the concepts of heat transfer and insulation as an example.For example, all students could explore the basic principles of heat transfer.For those with a strong foundation in science, particularly in the laws of thermodynamics, there is an opportunity to delve deeper into the intricacies of designing an insulator.These students might be tasked with creating a device to reduce heat transfer and calculating and comparing the heat capacities of different insulators, ultimately recommending the most effective one.Meanwhile, students with a particular spatial aptitude could visually represent molecular motion during heat transfer, either physically or digitally, through diagrams.This activity would enrich their comprehension of the underlying processes and enable them to model molecular motion in various insulators.For students who are still building their foundational understanding, the focus would be on grasping fundamental principles, such as energy transfer in the form of heat.These students would engage in The emphasis would be on practical activities like building the device without requiring heat capacity calculations, instead relying on observations and qualitative assessments to recommend the most effective insulator based on their practical experiences.This strategic approach ensures that all students, irrespective of their spatial reasoning aptitudes, are appropriately challenged, thereby mitigating the risk of boredom or disengagement that often accompanies a uniform curriculum.This method not only addresses different learning levels but also taps into specific talent domains, fostering a more holistic and effective development of spatial reasoning skills.

Cultivation of a Growth Mindset
Guided by the shared principles of the ICM and talent development, the cultivation of a growth mindset emerges as a cornerstone for fostering resilient and forward-thinking spatial reasoners [47].Although the growth mindset concept, which emphasizes viewing challenges as opportunities for growth and persisting through setbacks, was not established when VanTassel-Baska created the ICM, it aligns well with the overarching goal of talent development [48].In practical terms, schools can actively infuse growth mindset principles into their science, mathematics, and spatial reasoning curricula, reflecting the ICM's focus on advanced content, process-product integration, and interdisciplinary themes.For instance, within a middle school, growth mindset principles can be integrated into problem-solving exercises, redirecting the focus towards the value inherent in the learning process rather than solely fixating on outcomes.It is important to note that the narrative should extend beyond individual growth to encompass broader societal values.Fostering a growth mindset can be accompanied by discussions about ethical considerations, ensuring that spatial reasoning education remains accessible to all students, irrespective of their background or socioeconomic status [49].This holistic approach not only instills resilience in individual learners but also underscores the ethical imperatives inherent in talent development within the realm of spatial reasoning.The authors would also be remiss to dismiss parental influence on promoting spatial talent development.Recent research has shown that parents are motivated to choose more challenging spatial learning activities for their children when presented with general growth mindset information about spatial learning and its influence on STEM achievement choices to pursue STEM majors and occupations [50].Considering that the initial growth of spatial skills consistently correlates with the spatial home learning environment, it is imperative to involve parents early on to promote both the nature and frequency of spatially relevant home learning activities (e.g., blocks, puzzles, manipulatives, and maps) in which parents actively involve their children [50].

Fostering an Innovation Culture
Embedded within both the ICM and talent development principles, an innovation culture emerges as the foundational element for preparing gifted learners to navigate the dynamic landscape of spatial reasoning applications.Problem-and project-based learning, emblematic of an innovation culture, stands out as a transformative method for students to creatively tackle real-world spatial problems.Envision an elementary school scenario where students collaborate on a project to design an accessible urban space.This endeavor not only integrates spatial reasoning principles but also cultivates critical thinking, collaboration, and innovation from an early age.This approach not only enhances their spatial skills but also fosters a holistic skill set, preparing them for the multifaceted challenges of the evolving educational landscape and beyond.Through these collaborative projects, students not only grasp spatial concepts but also develop the problem-solving acumen necessary for navigating the complexities of our interconnected world.

Inclusive Strategies
Within the framework of the ICM and talent development, the imperative of inclusive strategies for diverse learner profiles takes center stage.Acknowledging that gifted learners in spatial reasoning exhibit a spectrum of strengths and learning styles, schools must adopt approaches that cater to this diversity.The ICM, emphasizing differentiation and depth, serves as the guiding philosophy for schools seeking to establish flexible pathways.For instance, in high school STEM departments, a diverse array of advanced courses could be offered, allowing students to choose based on their unique interests and strengths.This flexible approach ensures that all gifted learners, irrespective of their specific spatial reasoning strengths, find a place within the educational ecosystem.
Revisiting the role of parental involvement, it becomes clear that inclusivity extends beyond the classroom.Engaging parents in the talent development process is crucial, as is creating a collaborative partnership between home and school to nurture spatial talents.By providing examples of spatial enrichment activities that parents can facilitate at home, schools not only foster a supportive learning environment but also reinforce the notion that talent development is a collective endeavor, requiring collaboration from all stakeholders within the educational ecosystem.

Final Thoughts
Integrating spatial reasoning into K-12 education through Joyce VanTassel-Baska's Integrated Curriculum Model (ICM) and a comprehensive talent development approach can be transformative.Recognizing spatial reasoning as fundamental, educators nurture its components-visualization, rotation, orientation, and perception.This development influences academic success, problem-solving skills, and career prospects, especially for academically talented students.The collaboration of the ICM with talent development strategies, including mentorship and differentiated instruction, creates a dynamic, realworld-focused learning experience.Inclusive and parent-involved, this approach prepares students for the complexities of an evolving world, showcasing the power of tailored education to develop versatile contributors to society.This collaborative effort prepares the next generation of learners to navigate the multifaceted challenges of an increasingly complex world, ensuring that spatially gifted individuals emerge as versatile contributors to society.The journey to integrate spatial reasoning into education becomes a testament to the transformative power of tailored education, where the development of cognitive skills perfectly matches the needs and aspirations of each student.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Conceptual model of spatial terminology.Figure recreated by authors.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Conceptual model of spatial terminology.Figure recreated by authors.Spatial skills encompass several components that collectively contribute to an individual's cognitive processes of comprehending and manipulating spatial information.Spatial

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Integrated curriculum model for gifted learners.

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Integrated curriculum model for gifted learners.