Parental Perceived Usefulness on a School-Integrated App to Prevent Bullying and Eating Disorders

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Introduction
In our rapidly evolving digital age, where technology blends into our everyday lives, the safety and well-being of adolescents are becoming increasingly pressing concerns.Among these issues, bullying and eating disorders (EDs) in adolescents stand out as particularly significant challenges.Global statistics indicate that around 30% of students experience bullying from their peers during their childhood or adolescent years.While eating disorders are uncommon, impacting fewer than 2% of the general population, a significant number of teenagers, particularly girls, exhibit behaviors associated with disordered eating patterns [1,2].While mobile applications (apps) have emerged as potential tools for addressing such problems, they are not commonly integrated into school environments.To this end, "Searching Help" is an app specifically designed for integration into schools, aiming to address and mitigate bullying and EDs among students.
While the efficacy of mobile apps in addressing student well-being is recognized, it remains uncertain whether parents would be receptive to the integration of such tools within school environments.Given their pivotal role in their children's education and well-being, understanding parents' perceptions becomes crucial.
This study aimed to evaluate parents' perceptions of a school-integrated mobile application designed to mitigate issues like bullying and eating disorders among their children, and to uncover gender-based differences in parent's perceptions regarding the app's effectiveness.
As we continue to witness an unprecedented evolution in technology, it is fascinating to see how these advancements are increasingly being regarded as potential preventive aids.Mobile applications provide an opportunity for parents and schools to actively engage in the well-being of their children.Therefore, understanding parents' perceptions regarding technological solutions can significantly influence their adoption and efficacy [3,4].Today, a variety of mobile apps have been developed to help, mitigate, or even alert users to potential mental and emotional health concerns.Ferreira et al. [5] specifically researched apps that counteract bullying, but their findings indicated that many of these apps provide limited solutions: they primarily focus on identifying bullying incidents or suggesting coping methods.Similarly, in a recent review of eating disorder apps [6], researchers concluded that the apps primarily emphasize providing information on minimizing negative behaviors, rather than encouraging the adoption of positive, healthy behaviors.To put it simply, most of these apps are more reactive than proactive, dealing mainly with the aftermath or consequences rather than preventing incidents in the first place.
In our examination, the specific apps that deal with bullying and EDs are mostly designed for individual download and use, instead of incorporated into school settings.Table 1 presents a concise overview of some of these apps, with their main objectives and functionalities.The efficacy and adoption of prevention apps can depend on multiple factors including their design, ease of use, accuracy of alerts, the scope of issues addressed, and integration into institutions [7,8].According to Wiberg et al. [9], such digital interventions can reduce the risk factors associated with eating disorders when used as supplementary tools to traditional therapies.Similarly, a study [10] that explored the potential of apps in reducing bullying found that students who engaged with these platforms reported reduced victimization.While some studies advocate for prevention apps to be integrated in educational settings, others cite concerns about data privacy, unauthorized access, and possible tech dependency for their children.Overall, the potential of mobile apps in addressing these pressing issues is evident, but their effective and ethical integration into schools warrants further exploration [11][12][13].
A review of the literature on gender differences in technology use indicates that gender is related to people's perceived usefulness about technology use [14][15][16].Research suggests that while both parents play a significant role in their children's well-being, their perspectives and concerns, especially about technology, may vary.Mothers and fathers may have different perceptions and concerns related to their children's well-being, with gender differences in attitudes toward technology adoption.Particularly, the literature suggests that women are often more anxious than men about technology use.Conversely, men perceive technology as more useful and easy to use and show a higher intention to use technology [17][18][19][20].This higher sensitivity could lead mothers to be more cautious about incorporating technology into their children's lives, emphasizing the need for secure, age-appropriate, and engaging digital solutions.Additionally, the potential for technology to disrupt traditional play and learning methods might further fuel these anxieties, highlighting the importance of balanced tech integration that supports developmental needs without overshadowing vital non-digital experiences.
This increased willingness to embrace technology could lead to more proactive engagement with educational and well-being apps within the family, possibly influencing decision-making around technology use and setting a more technology-positive tone in the household.Consequently, understanding these gender-based perspectives is crucial for tailoring app features and communication strategies to both mothers and fathers, thereby enhancing the likelihood of their acceptance and effective use.
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is an information systems theory that models how users come to accept and use a technology [21].The TAM postulates that the acceptance of technology is predicted by the users' perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the technology.Perceived usefulness is defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular technology will enhance their job performance or the accomplishment of a task.On the other hand, perceived ease of use refers to the degree to which a person believes that using a particular technology will be free of effort [22].Importantly, individuals can assess the perceived usefulness of a technology based on its anticipated benefits and functionalities, without the necessity of direct experience with the technology itself.This means that understanding the potential applications and advantages of a technology can lead to a perception of its usefulness, irrespective of handson interaction.On the contrary, evaluating the ease of use typically requires direct experience with the technology.This is because ease of use is often influenced by the user interface design, intuitiveness, and the user's personal experience with the technology, which can only be fully assessed through interaction.The TAM is a well-known, validated, and established user acceptance model that can provide insight into what factors influence parental acceptance and technology use.The TAM has previously been used to analyze parents' acceptance and use of educational technology, computing majors, gamification, and e-learning platforms [21][22][23][24][25].
In the case of anti-bullying apps, a study [26] used a comprehensive model based on TAM to gain insights into the dimensions of mobile service adoption.The study found that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and social influence were significant predictors of intention to use anti-bullying apps.Additionally, Wheeler et al. [27] examined the factors influencing parental acceptance of anti-bullying apps.Their research revealed that a stronger predisposition to utilize anti-bullying apps was directly proportional to their concerns about cyberbullying.Additionally, the significance of social recommendations, perceived utility of the apps, and favorable attitudes towards them played crucial roles in predicting this intention.
In this research, we explore parents' perspectives on the deployment of a school-integrated app aimed at preventing and mitigating bullying and eating disorders (EDs) among students, while also examining potential gender differences in these views to understand how mothers and fathers perceive the utility of such apps in addressing these critical concerns.

Materials and Methods
An ex post facto research design was employed for this preliminary study, which is the type of research applied when seeking the causes and awareness of a phenomenon that cannot be manipulated because it has already occurred [28][29][30].
A group of 201 parents of teenagers aged 12 to 18 years who attend Spanish schools was selected using non-probabilistic sampling.Descriptive statistical analyses, as seen in Table 2, indicated an average age (M) of 43.91 and a standard deviation (SD) of 7.04, with an age range spanning from 29 to 64 years.The sample was dichotomized by gender, with men comprising 48.76% of the sample (M = 45.62;SD = 7.63; N = 98) and women making up the remaining 51.24% (M = 42.33;SD = 6.04;N = 103).A specific research instrument was designed to assess parents' perceptions regarding bullying, eating disorders, and the feasibility of installing mobile applications on their children's devices as a preventive measure.
Participants in our study were not familiar with the specific app but were asked about their perception of its potential utility based on general information regarding the app's purpose.This methodology is grounded in the Technology Acceptance Model's (TAM) concept of perceived usefulness, according to which individuals can form perceptions about the potential usefulness of a technology based on information about its functionality and intended benefits, even in the absence of direct experience with the technology itself.
Since there was no previously validated questionnaire addressing these specific issues, a conditional six-point Likert scale was created ad hoc, considering the uniqueness of the study's subject matter.No pilot testing was conducted, and the scale's formulation was guided by a comprehensive review of scientific literature and the identification of relevant variables.
This instrument consists of seven dimensions subdivided into 24 items, as detailed in Table 3.Its reliability was evaluated using a Cronbach's alpha coefficient, yielding a value of 0.921 with the study sample.The dimensions exhibit Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranging between 0.508 and 0.873, demonstrating a satisfactory level of internal consistency within each dimension.
Data were collected using the online platform Google Forms.Exclusion criteria were based on non-acceptance of informed consent and failure to meet the evaluation deadline.
The procedure for data collection was based on the principle of non-intervention, seeking complete independence of the analyzed population.This approach allowed total freedom to respond to the survey and resulted in the voluntary participation of subjects, without financial compensation for participating in the study, while respecting the anonymity and confidentiality of the participants.Furthermore, consent was obtained for the transfer of data to be used solely for research purposes, with the aim of adhering to ethical principles regarding scientific research, as outlined in the Helsinki Declaration.

Dimension
Item Description

Self-Perceived Knowledge
Level of knowledge about bullying.Level of knowledge about eating disorders.Level of knowledge about mobile applications designed to prevent bullying and EDs in adolescents 2. Risk for the Child Assessment of the risk of the child developing eating disorders.Assessment of the risk of the child being a victim of bullying.Assessment of the risk of the child being an aggressor in bullying situations.

Concerns about Negative Aspects
Concern about the negative impact on family privacy.Concern about the invasion of privacy by the school.Concern about possible unauthorized access to the child's data.
Concern about excessive dependency on technology.

Evaluation of Positive Factors
Evaluation of the positive influence of recommendations from health professionals or educators.

Evaluation of the positive influence of detailed knowledge of how the APP works
and what information it collects.Evaluation of the positive influence of knowledge about successful cases where the APP has prevented bullying or ED situations.Evaluation of the positive influence of the ability to customize and tailor the APP to the child's individual needs.

Benefits for the School Relationship
Evaluation of the benefits of increased communication and collaboration between parents and school professionals regarding the child's well-being.Evaluation of the benefits of greater trust in the school's ability to address bullying and EDs.Evaluation of the benefits of having relevant and up-to-date information about the child's progress and needs.Evaluation of the benefits of increased participation and awareness of prevention activities and programs implemented by the school.

Importance of Information
Evaluation of the importance of receiving immediate alerts about bullying or ED-related behaviors detected.Evaluation of the importance of receiving a periodic summary of the child's activities and behaviors related to bullying and EDs.Evaluation of the importance of receiving recommendations and resources to address bullying and EDs.Evaluation of the importance of receiving statistics and analysis on the incidence of bullying and EDs in the school community.

Overall Evaluation
Overall evaluation of the utility of installing the APP for preventing bullying and ED at school.Overall evaluation of the willingness to install the APP on the child's mobile phone to prevent bullying and EDs.
Regarding data analysis, prior to exploring the data, the normality assumption was verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (p < 0.001).Given the data's deviation from the normality criterion, non-parametric methods were employed for analysis.The tools chosen were the Spearman correlation coefficient (ρ) and the Mann-Whitney U test's comparison, with the rank biserial correlation (rbis) employed as an effect size estimator.The analyses were conducted using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 26.0.

Results
In relation to the study's objectives and prior to detailing the findings, the Spearman correlation coefficient was used to ascertain the relationship between variables and the significance of the final criterion items, as depicted in Table 4. Data shown in Table 4 suggest a clear proportional correlation between the perceived utility of the app and the inclination to install it on offsprings' phones (p < 0.001).Moreover, both aspects display a relationship with items concerning self-perceived understanding of bullying, eating disorders (EDs), and apps (p < 0.050).Similarly, there is a correlation with the positive attributes of apps (p < 0.001), the combined advantages of the app and school intervention to mitigate these issues (p < 0.001), and the significance of the feedback provided by the app (p < 0.001).Notably, an inclination to install the app corresponds to heightened concerns about the potential risks adolescents may face with bullying and EDs (p < 0.050).These observed connections validate the relevance and precision of the criterion items in representing the broader evaluation.
Addressing the primary research objective, we present the results from the descriptive statistical analysis, specifically the mean and standard deviation.In the context of this study, various dimensions related to participants' perceptions of the 24 items were evaluated, as shown in Table 5. Participants exhibited moderate levels of knowledge about bullying and eating disorders, with average scores of approximately 3.93 and 3.56, respectively.However, their knowledge about mobile apps designed to address these issues was significantly lower, with an average score of around 1.45.
On the other hand, factors that could positively influence the decision to install the app were rated positively.Professional recommendations and detailed knowledge of the app received notably high scores, surpassing 4.25 on average.Furthermore, awareness of successful cases and app personalization received positive evaluations, with scores close to 4.41.
Benefits related to installing the app to strengthen the relationship between parents and the school were also positively assessed.Participants emphasized the importance of increased communication and collaboration, greater trust in the school, relevant and upto-date information, and greater participation in programs, with average scores around Regarding the importance of the information provided by the app to parents, the results were positive.Immediate alerts about behaviors, periodic activity summaries, recommendations and resources, and statistics and bullying incidence received positive ratings, with scores close to 4.25 on average.
Finally, in general terms, participants had a positive perception of installing the app to prevent bullying and EDs at school, with an average score of around 4.07.Additionally, they showed a favorable predisposition to installing the app on their mobile devices, with average scores close to 4.01.
To address the second research objective, paired analysis of these variables was conducted to identify statistically significant differences between them, as shown in Table 6.After conducting the Mann-Whitney signed-rank test, statistically significant differences were found in two out of the 24 items, with higher scores in measurements from women and with a small effect size (rbis < 0.300) [31].Specifically, mothers showed statistically higher scores than fathers in their perception of knowledge about eating disorders (U = 4140, p < 0.026, rbis = 0.180) and in how the possible unauthorized access to their child's data can negatively influence their decision to install the app (U = 4247, p < 0.049, rbis = 0.159).Interestingly, the opposite occurred regarding the overall assessment of the utility of installing the app to promote a safe environment and prevent bullying and eating disorders in school; fathers had a statistically higher assessment than mothers (U = 3969, p < 0.008, rbis = 0.214).

Discussion
Our study set out with two primary objectives: assessing parents' perceptions of a school-integrated mobile application to prevent bullying and eating disorders, and uncovering gender differences in these perceptions.The questionnaire provided valuable insights into how parents perceive and evaluate the app and the topics it addresses.Furthermore, understanding their baseline perceptions facilitates future tailored interventions to address concerns and misconceptions.
Regarding knowledge discrepancies and their implications, the initial findings of this study revealed that parents possess a moderate level of awareness regarding bullying and eating disorders, with descriptive statistics showing average scores of 3.93 and 3.56, respectively, indicating a self-reported general understanding of these issues among parents.This finding aligns with concerns raised in the literature about the varying interpretations of bullying among parents [32], suggesting that there may be variability in understanding and perceptions, which could affect their readiness to adopt technological solutions for prevention.However, their knowledge about mobile applications designed to address these problems is notably lower, with an average score of only 1.45, highlighting a significant gap in understanding technology-based solutions.The limited knowledge parents have about mobile applications designed for these issues emphasizes the need for more proactive educational initiatives, as suggested in previous studies [7][8][9][10], to enhance their understanding of how such technologies can be beneficial.This discovery highlights the importance of efforts to inform parents about the benefits of technology-based solutions.Their reservations regarding mobile applications might stem from a lack of familiarity, potentially influencing the acceptance and effectiveness of these technological approaches.Increasing parental awareness through educational programs can be an effective strategy to bridge this knowledge gap, as detailed in previous studies [2,3].
Parents, in general, recognized the potential benefits of the application.Key influencing factors for a positive disposition towards the application included professional recommendations, knowledge about the app's functioning, success stories, and customization features.This aligns with the previous research on parental TAM [26,27], yet offers fresh perspectives.The impact of peer testimonials or feedback from other parents who have had a positive experience with the application might also serve as a powerful incentive.This is consistent with the broader literature that emphasizes the role of social influence in technology adoption [23,27].Leveraging these insights, future studies could explore targeted strategies for app development and user engagement, focusing on customization and peer feedback mechanisms.
The results indicated that the application serves as a significant tool in enhancing the rapport between parents and educational institutions.Participants notably responded to features such as immediate notifications about specific behaviors, periodic activity summaries and pertinent recommendations.This underscores the importance of transparent communication between school and families regarding the application's features and the potential positive outcomes.
A notable outcome from our data is the differential perception between genders.Mothers reported a higher knowledge about EDs, and also more concerns about unauthorized access to their child's data.In contrast, fathers were more optimistic about the overall utility of the app in creating a safer school environment.This observed gender difference aligns with the previous findings discussed in the literature review [15][16][17][18][19] and reaffirms the need of tailoring informational campaigns: while mothers might benefit from detailed breakdowns of data privacy and security features, fathers might be more receptive to education on EDs and bullying.
Regarding the limitations of the study, the sample size and method, while effective for a preliminary study, come with inherent limitations.The lack of a control group, the use of non-parametric variables, limited control over variables, and reliance on parents' self-perceptions are areas that could be addressed in future studies.These limitations might have influenced the generalizability and robustness of our findings.In future research, we aim to address these constraints by considering larger and more diverse samples, implementing control groups, utilizing parametric variables, enhancing experimental control, and exploring additional objective measures alongside self-perceptions.
A larger and more diverse sample might offer deeper insights and more generalizable results.Additionally, future studies could benefit from involving students, teachers, and school administrators, as their perspectives could enrich the understanding of the proposed interventions.Finally, while this study is primarily centered on one of the factors of the Technology Acceptance Model, perception of utility, it is suggested to conduct a second study focused on the ease of use of the interface of the specific tool "Searching Help".

Conclusions
In conclusion, our study reveals that parents acknowledge the value of a mobile app for preventing bullying and EDs in schools but require more detailed information about these digital solutions to fully embrace them.The findings underscore the need for targeted communication, particularly addressing the distinct concerns of mothers and fathers, to enhance app acceptance.
Future strategies should focus on privacy, customization, and professional endorsements to build parental trust.Future research should also explore the app's perceived ease of use, following the TAM framework.Addressing these areas, alongside broader and more inclusive research involving all stakeholders, will be crucial for the successful integration of such apps in educational settings.
By adopting these research methods, we aim to refine technological solutions and ensure their effective implementation in addressing school-related challenges.

Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.Ethical review and approval were waived for this study due to its adherence to the specific guidelines set forth by the Camilo José Cela University's Ethics Committee, which exempts studies from ethical approval if they involve anonymous data collection.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Table 1 .
Apps focused on bullying and eating disorders.

Table 2 .
Descriptive statistics of the age of the sample dichotomized by gender.

Table 3 .
Dimensions and items of the Parental Perception Assessment Instrument.

Table 4 .
Spearman correlation: utility and predisposition to install the app and the rest of the items.

Table 5 .
Descriptive statistics for the variables under analysis.

Table 6 .
Results of the Mann-Whitney signed-rank test.Comparison of items by gender.