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Volume 11
Issue 8
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Languages, Volume 11, Issue 8 (August 2026) – 23 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): How would members of a creole-speaking community go about the documentation of their endangered language? This article seeks to answer this question in Cavite, where Cavite Chabacano is spoken by no more than 3000 speakers who mostly belong to the grandparental generation. In order to ensure successful language documentation and explore new paths to revitalization, this study takes the perspectives of community members as the point of departure and locates them in dialog with those of academic researchers. In community workshops, documentation methods and goals that community members found most accurate were identified, and the data are analyzed from a nexus discourse analytical perspective, which helped uncover how community members co-constructed the community and negotiated the past and future of their language. View this paper
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20 pages, 352 KB  
Article
Three Generations, Two Languages, One Family: The Case of Turkish in France
by Mehmet-Ali Akinci
Languages 2026, 11(8), 174; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080174 - 19 Aug 2026
Viewed by 365
Abstract
According to recent estimates, France is home to approximately 700,000 individuals of Turkish origin, encompassing first-, second-, and third-generation immigrants. Scholars have extensively investigated the language practices, maintenance, and shift, as well as the cultural practices and identity construction, of Turkish migrant families [...] Read more.
According to recent estimates, France is home to approximately 700,000 individuals of Turkish origin, encompassing first-, second-, and third-generation immigrants. Scholars have extensively investigated the language practices, maintenance, and shift, as well as the cultural practices and identity construction, of Turkish migrant families in France, employing both sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic approaches. However, the majority of these studies have examined family members in isolation, focusing separately on young children, adolescents, or parents. The present study aims to investigate language use, choice, and maintenance, as well as identity construction, across three generations of Turkish immigrants in France. Data were collected from two Turkish families, one in the Rouen region and the other in the Paris region: the first family consists of a father, his daughter, and his granddaughter, while the second family includes a mother, her daughter, and her granddaughter. To do this, we used questionnaires and semi-structured interviews tailored to each of the three generations. The data were subsequently analyzed through content analysis. The paper addresses the following interconnected research questions: (i) What intergenerational differences exist within the same family regarding language use and choice, as well as linguistic competence in L1 (Turkish) and L2 (French)? (ii) How do bilinguals’ language choices and usage relate to the construction of family members’ identities? (iii) Is there evidence of language attrition among third-generation immigrants? (iv) Is there evidence of an ongoing language shift toward L2 within Turkish families? The findings indicate robust maintenance of Turkish, even among the third generation. While the first generation predominantly uses Turkish, both the second and third generations identify themselves as bilingual and exhibit positive attitudes toward both languages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)
16 pages, 546 KB  
Article
Hard Choices: Sound Change in Northern Greek
by Cleo Condoravdi and Paul Kiparsky
Languages 2026, 11(8), 173; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080173 - 17 Aug 2026
Viewed by 271
Abstract
We propose a new account of the change from -Vsis, -Vzis to -Vi̯s in Modern Lesbian, as well as of related changes in other Northern Greek dialects, arguing that they are special cases of the loss of unstressed high vowels. Our analysis depends [...] Read more.
We propose a new account of the change from -Vsis, -Vzis to -Vi̯s in Modern Lesbian, as well as of related changes in other Northern Greek dialects, arguing that they are special cases of the loss of unstressed high vowels. Our analysis depends on the new understanding of the nature of sound change that nonlinear phonology and Optimality Theory jointly make available. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)
8 pages, 520 KB  
Article
The Dialects of Lesvos and Adrianople: Similarities and Differences and What They Tell Us About Dialectal Variation in Greek
by Brian D. Joseph
Languages 2026, 11(8), 172; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080172 - 17 Aug 2026
Viewed by 271
Abstract
The Greek dialects of Lesvos and Adrianople (present-day Edirne) during the time of the Ottoman Empire have much in common. Both are northern dialects and show considerable influence from Turkish; moreover, both were documented in the early 20th century, before the fall of [...] Read more.
The Greek dialects of Lesvos and Adrianople (present-day Edirne) during the time of the Ottoman Empire have much in common. Both are northern dialects and show considerable influence from Turkish; moreover, both were documented in the early 20th century, before the fall of the Ottoman Empire, by Kretschmer, in 1905, for Lesvos and by Ronzevalle, in 1911, for Adrianople. A comparative look at the two dialects reveals deep penetration of Turkish into their respective lexicons, with consequences for their phonology, and for Adrianople, into aspects of its grammar too. I focus here on a phonological matter, namely the conditions under which voiced stops (D) occur. Kretschmer’s song recordings from Lesvos show D only after full nasals (N), i.e., in ND clusters, while later documentation, Newton 1972, shows no nasality, with only D as the realization, even in words with ND earlier. Adrianople Greek shows intervocalic D but also ND clusters, only in Turkish loans and always matching the consonantism of the Turkish source; such is the case too in ND/D variation in rebetika songs from Istanbul. This suggests that the issue really involves a kind of dialect mixing, and it is argued that this holds even for Lesvos, and even for sociolinguistically coded variation. Thus, bringing Adrianople Greek into consideration clarifies the nature of voiced stop realizations in Lesvos phonology. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Modern Dialect of Lesbos: Selected Topics)
19 pages, 4377 KB  
Article
Economy, Security and Sovereignty: Comparative Populist Rhetoric of Le Pen, Meloni and Weidel on X
by Ana Yara Postigo-Fuentes and Jose Bernardo Berna Alvarado
Languages 2026, 11(8), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080171 - 15 Aug 2026
Viewed by 364
Abstract
This article analyses how three leading female figures of the European far right—Marine Le Pen (France), Giorgia Meloni (Italy), and Alice Weidel (Germany)—construct populist discourse on X (formerly Twitter) during recent high-stakes election campaigns. The analysis is based on a corpus of 1053 [...] Read more.
This article analyses how three leading female figures of the European far right—Marine Le Pen (France), Giorgia Meloni (Italy), and Alice Weidel (Germany)—construct populist discourse on X (formerly Twitter) during recent high-stakes election campaigns. The analysis is based on a corpus of 1053 posts published in the month preceding the 2022 French presidential elections, the 2022 Italian general elections, and the 2025 German federal elections. Methodologically, it combines content analysis (operationalised through a codebook developed in Atlas.ti v23), Critical Discourse Analysis, and comparative analysis to identify dominant issues, campaign strategies, and underlying discursive structures. Adopting a corpus-pragmatic perspective, the study undertakes a pragmatic examination of implicit meaning—presupposition, implication, and implicature—to show how meaning is conveyed in authentic, digitally mediated political data. The findings reveal a shared populist communicative matrix centred on polarisation, simplification, and emotional mobilisation, alongside important national variations. Le Pen and Meloni primarily construct an “internal traitor” among political elites, linking economic and social grievances to elite failure. In contrast, Weidel recentres migration and security, portraying migrants as a direct threat and mainstream parties as responsible for citizens’ insecurity. The article highlights the need for further research on gender and leadership in the contemporary European far right. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corpus Pragmatics: Investigating Language Use in Context)
21 pages, 706 KB  
Article
Historical and New Minority Languages in Italian Educational Contexts: Practices, Challenges, and Ideologies
by Ilaria Fiorentini
Languages 2026, 11(8), 170; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080170 - 13 Aug 2026
Viewed by 298
Abstract
This paper focuses on historical and new linguistic minorities in educational contexts in Italy. It argues that, despite increasing multilingualism, the Italian educational system remains shaped by a persistent monolingual ideology. Drawing on data from two research projects, La classe plurilingue (2018–2020) and [...] Read more.
This paper focuses on historical and new linguistic minorities in educational contexts in Italy. It argues that, despite increasing multilingualism, the Italian educational system remains shaped by a persistent monolingual ideology. Drawing on data from two research projects, La classe plurilingue (2018–2020) and MinEdu—Supporting Minority Languages in Educational Contexts (2023–2026), it examines how different forms of multilingualism, both of which can be framed within a heritage language profile, are managed across educational settings. The analysis highlights a fundamental asymmetry: while historical minority languages are institutionally recognized but internally contested (particularly with respect to standardization), languages associated with migration are largely marginalized. The paper argues that both phenomena can be understood within a broader ideological framework described as “monolingualism within multilingualism”, and calls for a rethinking of language education policies in Italy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Languages in Italy: New Issues and Perspectives)
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18 pages, 7888 KB  
Article
Between “Threatened” and “Endangered”—The Validity of Vitality Labels
by Nala H. Lee, Chuen-Shin Yong and Miguel Escobar Varela
Languages 2026, 11(8), 169; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080169 - 13 Aug 2026
Viewed by 285
Abstract
Language vitality scales are commonly used in language documentation, yet assumptions behind labels such as “threatened” and “endangered” are often taken for granted. This study adopts a computational-based approach to disciplinary discourse analysis, examining how linguists deploy “threatened” and “endangered,” terms that appear [...] Read more.
Language vitality scales are commonly used in language documentation, yet assumptions behind labels such as “threatened” and “endangered” are often taken for granted. This study adopts a computational-based approach to disciplinary discourse analysis, examining how linguists deploy “threatened” and “endangered,” terms that appear on vitality scales, across scholarly discourse. We compared vocabulary and thematic content in “threatened” and “endangered” texts using TF-IDF, topic modeling, and similarity metrics, with other linguistic terms providing contextual benchmarks. Keyword analysis shows that “threatened” and “endangered” index related but distinct orientations within linguistic research. Writing on “endangered” languages more frequently centers on documentation, archiving, and institutional research practices, while writing on “threatened” languages places greater emphasis on language vitality and ongoing sociolinguistic change. The magnitude of their difference is contextualized by contrasting “threatened” and “endangered” with other conceptual pairs within linguistics and beyond. The findings suggest that “threatened” and “endangered”, which are consecutive labels on the Language Endangerment Index, are more closely related than distinct theoretical constructs but less related than near-overlapping linguistic terms. Overall, the results demonstrate that these terms, as deployed in disciplinary practice, capture systematic distinctions in how linguistic situations are understood. Methodologically, this paper shows how computational analysis can be used as a reflexive research tool that enables us to better understand disciplinary discourse. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Methods in Endangered Language Documentation)
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5 pages, 186 KB  
Editorial
Advances in Heritage Russian Bilingualism Across the Lifespan: An Introduction to the Special Issue
by Oksana Laleko and Tanya Ivanova-Sullivan
Languages 2026, 11(8), 168; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080168 - 11 Aug 2026
Viewed by 217
Abstract
Research on Russian as a heritage language has played a central role in the development of heritage language studies [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Russian Bilingualism across the Lifespan)
21 pages, 2107 KB  
Article
Stress Perception in European Portuguese by Naïve Mandarin Listeners
by Kexin Zhang and João Veloso
Languages 2026, 11(8), 167; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080167 - 11 Aug 2026
Viewed by 291
Abstract
Can listeners whose native language lacks contrastive lexical stress identify stress in an unfamiliar language? We addressed this question with native Mandarin Chinese listeners, whose L1 marks lexical contrasts with tone, and European Portuguese (EP), whose stress system relies mainly on vowel-quality and [...] Read more.
Can listeners whose native language lacks contrastive lexical stress identify stress in an unfamiliar language? We addressed this question with native Mandarin Chinese listeners, whose L1 marks lexical contrasts with tone, and European Portuguese (EP), whose stress system relies mainly on vowel-quality and durational cues. Twenty listeners with no knowledge of Portuguese heard 30 trisyllabic EP words and indicated, for each word, which syllable sounded most prominent. Overall accuracy was modestly but reliably above chance (46.9%; chance = 33.3%), but it was carried almost entirely by words with initial (antepenultimate) stress, and responses showed a strong overall preference for the initial syllable. Once this positional bias was modeled explicitly, relative duration was the only reliable acoustic predictor of listeners’ responses, with an additional contribution of syllable weight, whereas F0 and intensity showed no independent effects; the durational effect was robust to controlling for intrinsic vowel duration. These findings indicate partial, but clearly non-native-like, sensitivity to EP prominence: listeners recruited duration, a prominence cue productive in Mandarin and the main lexical cue remaining in EP for listeners who cannot exploit vowel-quality contrasts, while apparently disregarding F0, which their L1 binds to lexical tone. The results bear on the debate about prominence in Mandarin and show, methodologically, that positional response biases must be modeled before cue weighting can be interpreted. Full article
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24 pages, 397 KB  
Article
Function Words Production and Williams Syndrome in Catalan and Spanish
by Alícia Paulet-Prats, Lluís Barceló-Coblijn and Elga Cremades
Languages 2026, 11(8), 166; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080166 - 7 Aug 2026
Viewed by 288
Abstract
This study examines the use of function words in adult individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) compared to typically developing (TD) speakers, focusing on spontaneous speech in Catalan and Spanish. The aim is to assess both quantitative and qualitative aspects of function word production [...] Read more.
This study examines the use of function words in adult individuals with Williams syndrome (WS) compared to typically developing (TD) speakers, focusing on spontaneous speech in Catalan and Spanish. The aim is to assess both quantitative and qualitative aspects of function word production and to explore whether WS is associated with distinct grammatical processing patterns. The corpus consisted of 20 five-minute transcripts, equally divided by language (Catalan/Spanish) and group (WS/TD). Analyses included counts of function word categories, error types, and mean length of utterance in morphemes (MLUm). Statistical procedures (t-tests, ANOVA, Mann–Whitney tests, and MANOVA with bootstrapping) were applied depending on distributional assumptions. Results showed significant differences between WS and TD groups in several categories, including prepositions, conjunctions, definite articles, numerals, adverbs, and relative pronouns, with large effect sizes in some cases. MLUm was also significantly lower in the WS group. In contrast, no significant effects of language or interaction between language and group were found. These findings indicate that WS has a robust impact on grammatical usage, particularly affecting function words, independently of language. On the whole, the results support the view that WS is associated with atypical linguistic profiles and contribute cross-linguistic evidence from Romance languages, highlighting the need for further research on language processing in this population. Full article
23 pages, 1744 KB  
Article
The Structure of Lexical Variation in Austrian Varieties: A Quantitative Analysis
by Philipp Stöckle and Markus Pluschkovits
Languages 2026, 11(8), 165; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080165 - 7 Aug 2026
Viewed by 368
Abstract
This paper investigates variation on the level of lexis in Austrian German across registers with an apparent-time approach, drawing on data from a large-scale online survey of lexical variation conducted across Austria between 2021 and 2023, comprising 45 lexical concepts elicited from over [...] Read more.
This paper investigates variation on the level of lexis in Austrian German across registers with an apparent-time approach, drawing on data from a large-scale online survey of lexical variation conducted across Austria between 2021 and 2023, comprising 45 lexical concepts elicited from over 1900 respondents. We utilize Shannon entropy as a proxy to model lexical diversity across different registers in young and old speakers and investigate the influence of area, age group, phenomenon and register. We use ANOVA, multi-dimensional scaling and generalized additive modelling and find that the lexical concept under investigation exerts by far the strongest influence on lexical diversity, followed by a small but significant regional effect—one that, however, disappears when modelled at the level of individual localities rather than aggregated regions. While area influences lexical diversity, we do not find evidence of clearly distinguished lexical isoglosses in our data but rather broad east–west distinctions. While we find more diversity in older speakers in their nonstandard, we observe more pronounced east–west distinctions in younger speakers. We interpret this as a levelling of standard and nonstandard forms in younger speakers but along broader regional lines. This is corroborated by the reduced diversity in younger speakers in nonstandard varieties but slightly higher diversity in standard registers, pointing towards a levelling process. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Variationist Linguistics on German—Focus on Lexis and Pragmatics)
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40 pages, 6494 KB  
Article
The Effects of Home Recordings and Parent Training in a Community-Based Early Language Intervention
by Lorraine D. Reggin, Janelle M. Wydeven, Susan A. Graham and Penny M. Pexman
Languages 2026, 11(8), 164; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080164 - 4 Aug 2026
Viewed by 473
Abstract
LENA StartTM is a community-based parent education program designed to promote early language development in children from birth to 3 years of age. In this study, the contributions of three intervention components—home recordings, individualized feedback, and parent education—were examined over 10 weeks [...] Read more.
LENA StartTM is a community-based parent education program designed to promote early language development in children from birth to 3 years of age. In this study, the contributions of three intervention components—home recordings, individualized feedback, and parent education—were examined over 10 weeks across three groups: LENA StartTM program (n = 347), Recordings + Feedback (n = 66), and Recordings Only (n = 51). Linear mixed-effects models were used to examine change over time, group differences, and group differences in trajectories while accounting for baseline values and child characteristics. There were improvements in child language, as measured by the parent-reported LENA® Developmental Snapshot, across measurement periods for all groups, whereas parent-reported confidence and knowledge survey scores increased only for families participating in the LENA StartTM program. Families receiving feedback (LENA StartTM and Recordings + Feedback) reported greater increases in reading time than families completing recordings alone. After accounting for baseline values, no overall group differences or differences in trajectories were observed in the number of adult words, conversational turns, or child vocalizations as measured by LENA® recordings. These findings suggest that different components of LENA-based interventions may influence distinct outcomes and underscore the importance of evaluating parent language interventions using multiple measures, extending beyond quantitative indicators of parent–child talk. Full article
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22 pages, 6996 KB  
Article
Multimodal Dimensions of Hungarian Infant-Directed Communication During Storytelling
by Anna Kohári, Uwe D. Reichel, Sarolta Murányi, Rebeka Dóra Keserű, Katalin Pirsel and Katalin Mády
Languages 2026, 11(8), 163; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080163 - 4 Aug 2026
Viewed by 796
Abstract
Adults, when talking to infants, adjust their communication across several dimensions, including acoustic, linguistic, and gestural characteristics. However, our knowledge of how these dimensions covary in this register adjustment remains limited. Our objective was to analyze the linguistic elements, gestures and acoustic features [...] Read more.
Adults, when talking to infants, adjust their communication across several dimensions, including acoustic, linguistic, and gestural characteristics. However, our knowledge of how these dimensions covary in this register adjustment remains limited. Our objective was to analyze the linguistic elements, gestures and acoustic features (speech rate, vowel space, prosody) of storytelling directed to 6-month-old infants in a multidimensional way. The storytelling of 92 mothers to their own children was investigated and compared to their communication with other adults. We analyzed the acoustic features, gestures, and the linguistic construction of their storytelling. Our results have shown that pointing and showing gestures were more common in infant-directed storytelling, just as interactive expressions unrelated to the story were. The correlation tests across dimensions revealed that infant-directed communication is multidimensional. The cross-dimensional analyses demonstrated that infant-directed communication, compared to adult-directed communication, exhibited more systematic multidimensional coordination. Mothers who used more gestures and interactive elements in their infant-directed communication also tended to modify the acoustic characteristics of their speech to a greater extent relative to their adult-directed speech. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Phonological Foundations of Language Acquisition: Variations in Babbling and Early Lexical Productions in Children Learning One or More Languages)
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21 pages, 418 KB  
Article
Putonghua or fangyan? Family Language Policy and Heritage Language Transmission in Chinese Migrant Families in Italy
by Cristina Li
Languages 2026, 11(8), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080162 - 4 Aug 2026
Viewed by 439
Abstract
This article examines heritage language transmission within Chinese migrant families in Italy, focussing on the role of Family Language Policy and the interplay between standard (Putonghua) and non-standard local varieties (fangyan). Drawing on semi-structured interviews with six families and [...] Read more.
This article examines heritage language transmission within Chinese migrant families in Italy, focussing on the role of Family Language Policy and the interplay between standard (Putonghua) and non-standard local varieties (fangyan). Drawing on semi-structured interviews with six families and the primary school teachers of their children (aged 6–8), the study adopts a multi-perspective design to explore how reported language practices, beliefs, and attitudes interact across family and school domains. Findings indicate a predominant shift towards Putonghua as the primary heritage language, often at the expense of fangyan, which tends to be marginalised by parents or reported as being retained only as passive competence among children. This shift reflects practical considerations and evaluative orientations related to prestige, usefulness, and standardisation. Variation across families shows that alternative orientations persist, with one family valuing fangyan for intergenerational continuity. Teachers’ perspectives further suggest a limited awareness of internal linguistic diversity within the student population. The convergence of family-driven shifts and school-based perceptions may contribute to processes of increasing standardisation in the representation and transmission of heritage varieties. This article contributes to research on heritage language maintenance by offering contextually situated insights into how the interplay between social actors and contextual factors may shape linguistic diversity within diasporic communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Languages in Italy: New Issues and Perspectives)
16 pages, 1340 KB  
Article
Italian Discourse Markers in First- and Second-Generation Migrants in Naples: The Case of Cioè
by Violetta Cataldo
Languages 2026, 11(8), 161; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080161 - 31 Jul 2026
Viewed by 386
Abstract
This study investigates the use of the discourse marker cioè in the Italian speech of first- and second-generation migrants living in Naples, focusing on frequency, phonetic realization, pragmatic functions, and syntactic position. While previous research on discourse markers in Italian as a second [...] Read more.
This study investigates the use of the discourse marker cioè in the Italian speech of first- and second-generation migrants living in Naples, focusing on frequency, phonetic realization, pragmatic functions, and syntactic position. While previous research on discourse markers in Italian as a second language has primarily addressed their functional development, their phonetic realization—especially in contact with regional varieties—remains largely unexplored. The analysis is based on a corpus of sociolinguistic interviews collected within the HELLO Campania! Project and includes Sri Lankan and Filipino speakers, compared with a control group of native Neapolitan speakers. Quantitative analyses reveal clear generational differences: first-generation speakers show low frequencies and limited functional range, whereas second-generation speakers display native-like frequency and distribution. Crucially, results show that migrants not only acquire cioè at a functional level but also reproduce locally salient phonetic variants, including variety-specific patterns of phonetic reduction, i.e., [tʃɛ] and [ʃɛ]. These findings suggest that linguistic integration operates across multiple levels and that discourse markers are sensitive sites of sociophonetic accommodation. The study contributes to research on Italian L2 and language contact by highlighting the role of regional phonetic patterns in shaping the acquisition of high-frequency pragmatic items. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Languages in Italy: New Issues and Perspectives)
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21 pages, 819 KB  
Article
Multiple Argument Ellipsis and the Universal Uniqueness Principle
by Toru Ishii and Brian Agbayani
Languages 2026, 11(8), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080160 - 31 Jul 2026
Viewed by 354
Abstract
This paper is concerned with a peculiar asymmetry between single and multiple argument ellipsis in Japanese: ellipsis of a single argument is sensitive to syntactic constraints and LF interpretive effects, whereas multiple argument ellipsis is not. We point out that argument ellipsis and [...] Read more.
This paper is concerned with a peculiar asymmetry between single and multiple argument ellipsis in Japanese: ellipsis of a single argument is sensitive to syntactic constraints and LF interpretive effects, whereas multiple argument ellipsis is not. We point out that argument ellipsis and topicalization are parallel in this respect: while single topicalization obeys syntactic constraints and exhibits LF interpretive effects, multiple topicalization does not. Following Agbayani and Ishii’s (2023) proposal that multiple topicalization involves prosodic topicalization at PF, we argue that while single argument ellipsis involves syntactic topicalization followed by topic deletion (Fujiwara, 2020, 2022; Mizuno, 2025), multiple argument ellipsis involves prosodic topicalization. We then propose the Universal Uniqueness Principle, which enforces “uniqueness” for any application of movement, and demonstrate that this principle, coupled with the Earliness Principle (Pesetsky, 1989), accounts for asymmetries with single and multiple argument ellipsis/topicalization in relation to the levels where topicalization occurs. We argue that cross-linguistic differences in “uniqueness” phenomena result from different properties of the syntax–prosody mapping, not from a “uniqueness” macro-parameter (Fukui, 1999), providing support for the Uniformity Hypothesis (Chomsky, 2001) and the Externalization Parameter (Chomsky, 2010; Berwick & Chomsky, 2011). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)
22 pages, 3277 KB  
Article
Between Head and Heart: Mother Tongues/Heritage Languages in the Language Portraits of Immigrants in Naples (Italy)
by Marta Maffia
Languages 2026, 11(8), 159; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080159 - 31 Jul 2026
Viewed by 351
Abstract
This study explores how adult immigrants represent and position their mother tongue/heritage language (L1/HL) within their linguistic repertoires, adopting a heteroglossic perspective on bilingualism and situating the analysis within the autobiographical approach to language education. The research was conducted within the G.U.L.P. project [...] Read more.
This study explores how adult immigrants represent and position their mother tongue/heritage language (L1/HL) within their linguistic repertoires, adopting a heteroglossic perspective on bilingualism and situating the analysis within the autobiographical approach to language education. The research was conducted within the G.U.L.P. project in Naples and is based on a corpus of 268 language portraits produced by learners of Italian as a second language, complemented by oral presentations. Data were analyzed through an integrated quantitative and qualitative methodology, focusing on the spatial distribution of languages in the portraits and on the thematic content of the accompanying presentations. The results show that the L1/HL is most frequently positioned in cognitively and affectively salient areas, particularly the head and the heart, reflecting both rational and emotional conceptualizations of language. While no substantial differences emerge across biographical variables, some tendencies can be observed, including a greater association of the heart with female participants and variation across national groups. Overall, the findings highlight the central role of the L1/HL in learners’ self-representations and confirm the value of the language portrait as a tool for investigating linguistic repertoires and supporting the recognition of plurilingual identities in education, also with adult immigrants. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Languages in Italy: New Issues and Perspectives)
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24 pages, 463 KB  
Article
A Corpus-Based Pragmatic Study of the Formulation of Definitions and Legal Rulings in Sharia and Law College Curricula at Saudi Universities
by Fouad Ahmed Atallah
Languages 2026, 11(8), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080158 - 30 Jul 2026
Viewed by 321
Abstract
Sharia and Law colleges in Saudi universities provide a distinctive educational setting in which classical Islamic jurisprudential discourse and contemporary statutory legal discourse coexist within the same curriculum. Despite this shared institutional context, the pragmatic characteristics of these coexisting normative genres remain largely [...] Read more.
Sharia and Law colleges in Saudi universities provide a distinctive educational setting in which classical Islamic jurisprudential discourse and contemporary statutory legal discourse coexist within the same curriculum. Despite this shared institutional context, the pragmatic characteristics of these coexisting normative genres remain largely unexplored from a corpus-based perspective. This study examines how genre differences influence the linguistic formulation of legal definitions and religious rulings across four officially prescribed texts: two classical Hanbali works—Rawḍat al-Nāẓir by Ibn Qudāma and Al-Rawḍ al-Murbiʿ by al-Buhūtī—and two contemporary Saudi statutes—the Civil Transactions Law and the Law of Criminal Procedure. A purpose-built corpus of approximately 480,000 words was analysed using a corpus-assisted discourse analysis design integrating quantitative frequency and keyword analysis with systematic manual pragmatic coding within a triangulated theoretical framework. The findings show that differences in disciplinary genre are systematically reflected in distinct pragmatic profiles. Rawḍat al-Nāẓir is characterised by assertive-definitional speech acts and methodological deontic expressions, whereas Al-Rawḍ al-Murbiʿ is dominated by directive speech acts associated with applied legal rulings. The statutory texts employ standardised legislative constructions, including negative-exceptive formulations, formal prohibition markers, and institution-specific obligation structures. The Civil Transactions Law further exhibits a hybrid pragmatic register through the incorporation of classical jurisprudential maxims into enacted statutory provisions. Based on the systematic literature review undertaken for this study, the findings provide what is, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, the first corpus-based pragmatic comparison of these coexisting curricular genres. The study thereby contributes to Arabic legal linguistics, corpus pragmatics, and the linguistic analysis of legal education, while offering empirically grounded insights for curriculum development in Sharia and Law programmes. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Corpus Pragmatics: Investigating Language Use in Context)
14 pages, 360 KB  
Article
Lexical Stratification and Semantic Reallocation Under Long-Term Language Contact: Evidence from Northern Shaanxi Jin
by Xuemei He
Languages 2026, 11(8), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080157 - 30 Jul 2026
Viewed by 518
Abstract
Research on dialect contact often frames lexical shifts under pressure from dominant standard or prestige varieties as unidirectional replacement: supra-local forms spread and inherited local vocabulary recedes. This article re-examines that model through Northern Shaanxi Jin, a group of Jin varieties in long-term [...] Read more.
Research on dialect contact often frames lexical shifts under pressure from dominant standard or prestige varieties as unidirectional replacement: supra-local forms spread and inherited local vocabulary recedes. This article re-examines that model through Northern Shaanxi Jin, a group of Jin varieties in long-term vertical contact with Standard Mandarin. The analysis draws on structured wordlists, contextual elicitation, an 810 min corpus of spontaneous speech, and a supplementary apparent-time response task with 38 younger speakers. Four domains are examined in detail: weather expressions, the hou (猴) diminutive network, the leng (冷)/liang (凉) temperature contrast, and the generalized classifier ge (个). The corpus and elicited data show that Mandarin-aligned forms have expanded, especially in reportive, institutional, cross-dialectal, and younger-peer settings. These forms, however, do not displace inherited lexical resources along a single trajectory. Local forms remain active in fixed weather and customary expressions, tactile distinctions, address and idiomatic uses, and routine nominal quantification. This pattern is analyzed as lexical stratification supported by semantic reallocation: sustained contact redistributes overlapping forms across semantic ranges, constructional environments, and interactional settings rather than producing uniform lexical replacement. Full article
13 pages, 452 KB  
Article
Language Maintenance and Shift in Onward Migration from Italy: The Case of Cameroonian-Origin Families
by Raymond Siebetcheu
Languages 2026, 11(8), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080156 - 28 Jul 2026
Viewed by 326
Abstract
This article examines the changing role of Italian among Cameroonian-origin families who experienced onward migration after a prolonged period of residence in Italy. Drawing on qualitative data collected between June 2024 and August 2025 through socio-biographical questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with 15 families, [...] Read more.
This article examines the changing role of Italian among Cameroonian-origin families who experienced onward migration after a prolonged period of residence in Italy. Drawing on qualitative data collected between June 2024 and August 2025 through socio-biographical questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with 15 families, the study investigates how Italian is maintained, reduced, or refunctionalised after relocation to Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Switzerland, or the United States or return to Cameroon. The findings show that Italian played a central role during the period of residence in Italy, functioning as a language of education, employment, institutional participation, and social integration. After onward migration, however, these functions are largely assumed by the dominant language of the new country, especially among children whose schooling and peer relationships develop in French, English, or German. Nevertheless, Italian rarely disappears completely. It persists in more specialised domains, including couple interaction, transnational networks, professional niches, private communication, lexical routines, naming practices, and emotional attachment to the family’s life in Italy. The article argues that Italian should not be understood only through the binary opposition between language maintenance and language shift. Rather, onward migration produces a functional reconfiguration of Italian, whereby a former language of integration becomes a biographical, relational, and symbolic resource within multilingual family repertoires. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Languages in Italy: New Issues and Perspectives)
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19 pages, 353 KB  
Article
Morphosyntactic Studies of Spanish in Contact with Mexican Indigenous Languages
by Nadiezdha Torres-Sánchez and Alonso Guerrero-Galván
Languages 2026, 11(8), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080155 - 27 Jul 2026
Viewed by 302
Abstract
In Mexico, diverse sociolinguistic realities have given rise to various situations of language contact, primarily between Spanish and indigenous languages. Intense linguistic contact produces changes in the structure of both languages. This research reviews several studies that have focused on describing variation and [...] Read more.
In Mexico, diverse sociolinguistic realities have given rise to various situations of language contact, primarily between Spanish and indigenous languages. Intense linguistic contact produces changes in the structure of both languages. This research reviews several studies that have focused on describing variation and processes of change at the morphosyntactic level due to linguistic contact in different varieties of Spanish in contact with indigenous languages. On the one hand, the stability of some of these change processes is noted, and on the other, the function served by both the structures of indigenous languages and the diverse contact situations in which they are immersed is evidenced, which demonstrates that despite sharing contact features, the process and the results are not the same across different Mexican bilingual communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shifting Borders: Spanish Morphosyntax in Contact Zones)
18 pages, 2561 KB  
Article
Spanish Formal Features in the Mind of Bilingual Children in Two Spanish–English Contact Zones
by Raquel Fernández Fuertes and Tamara Gómez Carrero
Languages 2026, 11(8), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080154 - 27 Jul 2026
Viewed by 312
Abstract
We explore how Spanish gender features are processed by English–Spanish bilingual children from two contact zones (Sotogrande, Spain, and Gibraltar, United Kingdom), divided into two dominance groups. The children come from two schools in which both languages are spoken, while English is the [...] Read more.
We explore how Spanish gender features are processed by English–Spanish bilingual children from two contact zones (Sotogrande, Spain, and Gibraltar, United Kingdom), divided into two dominance groups. The children come from two schools in which both languages are spoken, while English is the language of instruction. We present offline and online processing data involving linguistic code-switching between subjects and adjectives (Adj) in copulative constructions (the window es is roja red). Two issues are targeted to explore the mental representation that bilinguals have when their two languages are simultaneously activated. (i) The directionality of the switch provides information as to whether or not having to value gender features should result in a more economical representation. (ii) The gender agreement mechanisms that could be enforced when a Spanish adjective switch is processed provide information as to the importance that gender feature valuation has for bilinguals. Data show that no differences appear across the two child groups, which suggests that dominance does not reflect the similar representation that the two bilingual groups seem to have. The preference for English Adj switches and for gender matching Spanish Adj switches is linked to the properties of the two languages involved in the switch and to the hierarchy of processing difficulties. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Shifting Borders: Spanish Morphosyntax in Contact Zones)
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19 pages, 700 KB  
Article
Documenting a Creole: Aligning Research Goals with Community Goals
by Eeva Sippola, Danae Perez and Jillian Melchor
Languages 2026, 11(8), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080153 - 23 Jul 2026
Viewed by 635
Abstract
This article explores a community-based approach to language documentation in a multilingual, creole-speaking environment. Cavite Chabacano is a highly endangered creole spoken in the Philippines, and its speakers mostly belong to the grandparental generation. In order to ensure its documentation and explore possible [...] Read more.
This article explores a community-based approach to language documentation in a multilingual, creole-speaking environment. Cavite Chabacano is a highly endangered creole spoken in the Philippines, and its speakers mostly belong to the grandparental generation. In order to ensure its documentation and explore possible new paths to revitalization that go beyond documentation, this study takes as its point of departure the perspectives of community members and locates them in dialog with those of academic researchers. The authors explore large community workshops as a format to identify documentation methods and goals that community members find most accurate, among which a standardized orthography was mentioned. The data are analyzed from a nexus discourse analytical perspective, which helped uncover how community members co-constructed the community and negotiated the past and future of their language. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Methods in Endangered Language Documentation)
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20 pages, 1190 KB  
Article
Acquisition of Russian Voice Morphology: sja-Types in Monolingual and Bilingual Children
by Pasha Koval, Sophia A. Malamud, Ruth Rosenblum and Illia Borzov
Languages 2026, 11(8), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11080152 - 23 Jul 2026
Viewed by 555
Abstract
The Russian suffix -sja presents a learnability problem: a single morpheme signals five distinct argument-structure alternations (anticausative, reflexive, antipassive, reciprocal, and impersonal). How do monolingual and bilingual children acquire this complex form-function mapping? We report a longitudinal corpus study of 13 Russian-speaking children [...] Read more.
The Russian suffix -sja presents a learnability problem: a single morpheme signals five distinct argument-structure alternations (anticausative, reflexive, antipassive, reciprocal, and impersonal). How do monolingual and bilingual children acquire this complex form-function mapping? We report a longitudinal corpus study of 13 Russian-speaking children (five monolinguals and eight bilinguals) examining the emergence, distribution, and productivity of each sja-type. Three main findings emerge. First, children show a productivity hierarchy: anticausative and reflexive occur with many different verbs, whereas reciprocal and impersonal are largely confined to a few high-frequency items. Second, impersonal -sja is uniquely difficult, emerging latest and showing the lowest productivity overall. Third, contrary to predictions from heritage language research, bilingual children in our corpus show no deficit relative to monolinguals (and in fact show earlier emergence across the board). These findings suggest that the bilingual divergence from the monolingual baseline must emerge after early childhood. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Heritage Russian Bilingualism across the Lifespan)
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