Poorly Investigated Ecuadorian Medicinal Plants

Ecuador has, in proportion of its size, one of the richest floras of Latin America and the world; the country also has an immense cultural heritage due to the presence of different ethnic groups that have implemented the use of many wild and cultivated plants, mainly as medicinal remedies. In a recent publication, we have summarized the results of research activities recently carried out on about 120 plants native to Ecuador, which includes the structures of non-volatile isolated compounds, as well as the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) and the in vitro tested biological activity data. For the sake of completeness, we have collected in this paper the main information obtained from recent ethnobotanical investigations on other important Ecuadorian medicinal plants for which phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies are, however, still largely lacking. Thus, one of the objectives of this paper is to preserve the traditional knowledge of Ecuadorian Indigenous communities which, being transmitted orally, is in danger of becoming lost. Moreover, it is our intention to stimulate more extensive studies on the rich medicinal flora of the country, which can provide economic and social benefits, especially to the people who traditionally cultivate or collect the plants.


Introduction
The different ethnic groups living in Ecuador have managed, through a process of social and biological evolution, to manage and use numerous medicinal plants for their own benefit [1,2]. In fact, in Indigenous communities, traditional healer practitioners and shamans use a variety of medicinal plants and natural remedies for their health-care practices and religious rituals. This knowledge is entirely empirical and is passed orally from generation to generation, thus it is in danger of becoming lost [3]. Moreover, the ancestral consumption of medicinal and hallucinogenic plants by native peoples [4] is based on popular traditions, and on the apparent efficacy and safety of these remedies for the treatments and cures of ailments of different kinds, or for performing rituals [5]. However, no scientific evidence has validated most of these effects. This situation is common to most developing countries, where the cost of western world drugs is often prohibitive. As a result, it is estimated that about 60% of the world's population uses plants almost exclusively as a source of medicines, although there is generally no control over the chemical compositions, while the effectiveness and the absence of chronic toxicity are all to be demonstrated.
Ecuador (Figure 1), thanks to its high biodiversity, is included in the list of the 17 megadiverse world countries [6], all of which are partially or totally located between the tropics. Moreover, it is worthwhile to note that the surface of Ecuador is the smallest among the megadiverse countries, with around 258,000 km 2 , which correspond to only 0.02% of the earth's surface. Regarding the number of native vascular plants growing in Ecuador, the Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador, published in 1999, listed a total of 15,306 species, including 1298 pteridophytes, 17 gymnosperms, and 13,991 angiosperms [7]. Recently, the number of native taxa has been increased to 17,500 [8,9], of which from 4500 to 5500 are endemic [10,11]. However, it is estimated that, with the assessment of the studies on the Ecuadorian flora, the total number of vascular plants could reach 25,000 [11], which is just below 7% of the world's known plants. Despite the worldwide recognition as a megadiverse country, there is no general agreement on which components of Ecuador's biodiversity are to be studied scientifically and used sustainably as a priority. In this context, we believe that an intelligent exploitation of the different useful vascular plants, and within them the hundreds of medicinal species used by the Indigenous communities, could provide numerous economic and social benefits to the entire population of Ecuador. In this regard, it is important to remember that the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the studies in the field of traditional medicinal plants as an aid to developing countries [12]. It should also be considered that more than 25% of the drugs on the market in industrialized countries are based on natural compounds or their derivatives; in particular, 60-80% of antibacterial and anticancer drugs are of natural origin [13,14]. Thus, the search for new bioactive lead compounds of natural origin, especially from poorly investigated regions of biodiversity, remains one of the main strategic lines of pharmaceutical research.
For these reasons, aimed at enhancing the value of the botanical resources of Ecuador and at sustaining the medicinal uses of local plants by scientific evidence, we have summarized the results of research activities carried out on hundreds of species growing in Ecuador in a couple of recent publications [2,15]. They include the structures of isolated non-volatile compounds, as well as the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) and in vitro tested biological activity data. However, phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies are still largely lacking for several other native and endemic plants used in the traditional medicine of Ecuador, which are mentioned in a few ethnobotanical studies [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. We believe that also orphan or poorly investigated medicinal plants may become important sources of secondary biologically active metabolites and give different opportunities for their sustainable uses. Therefore, in this paper, we have critically collected the available pertinent information about poorly investigated traditional native and endemic plants of Ecuador (Table 1), with the intention to stimulate further scientific Despite the worldwide recognition as a megadiverse country, there is no general agreement on which components of Ecuador's biodiversity are to be studied scientifically and used sustainably as a priority. In this context, we believe that an intelligent exploitation of the different useful vascular plants, and within them the hundreds of medicinal species used by the Indigenous communities, could provide numerous economic and social benefits to the entire population of Ecuador. In this regard, it is important to remember that the World Health Organization (WHO) has recommended the studies in the field of traditional medicinal plants as an aid to developing countries [12]. It should also be considered that more than 25% of the drugs on the market in industrialized countries are based on natural compounds or their derivatives; in particular, 60-80% of antibacterial and anticancer drugs are of natural origin [13,14]. Thus, the search for new bioactive lead compounds of natural origin, especially from poorly investigated regions of biodiversity, remains one of the main strategic lines of pharmaceutical research.
For these reasons, aimed at enhancing the value of the botanical resources of Ecuador and at sustaining the medicinal uses of local plants by scientific evidence, we have summarized the results of research activities carried out on hundreds of species growing in Ecuador in a couple of recent publications [2,15]. They include the structures of isolated non-volatile compounds, as well as the chemical composition of essential oils (EOs) and in vitro tested biological activity data. However, phytochemical, pharmacological, and toxicological studies are still largely lacking for several other native and endemic plants used in the traditional medicine of Ecuador, which are mentioned in a few ethnobotanical studies [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]. We believe that also orphan or poorly investigated medicinal plants may become important sources of secondary biologically active metabolites and give different opportunities for their sustainable uses. Therefore, in this paper, we have critically collected the available pertinent information about poorly investigated traditional native and endemic plants of Ecuador (Table 1), with the intention to stimulate further scientific investigations on the rich medicinal flora of the country. When reported in literature, phytochemical and/or pharmacological data of a species included in Table 1 are briefly described. For the sake of ethnopharmacological completeness, imported species used in the traditional medicine of Ecuador, which have not been reported in the previous reviews [2,15], are included in Table 2.

Research Strategies and Literature Sources
The data included in this paper have been retrieved using the keywords "medicinal plants from Ecuador", "ethnomedicine", "traditional uses", and "medicinal plants" in different databases including PubMed, SciFinder, Springer, Elsevier, Wiley, Web of Science, and Google Scholar.
Plants with incorrect botanical classification or without the name of the species have not been included in Table 1. The plant scientific names were checked with the database WFO (2021): World Flora Online, published on the Internet at http://www. worldfloraonline.org [23] (accessed on 23 December 2021); Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden at https://www.tropicos.org/home [24] (accessed on 28 December 2021); Global Biodiversity Information Facility Ecuador at https://www.gbif.org/es/country/ EC/summary [25] (accessed on 29 December 2021), and Enciclopedia de las Plantas Utiles del Ecuador [8]. Information from master's and doctoral dissertations were not considered for the preparation of this review.

Ethnobotanical and Ethnopharmacological Data
A total of 257 medicinal plants are listed in Tables 1 and 2, divided by 78 botanical families. They include 141 native and 11 endemic species (Table 1), and 105 species introduced from different regions of the world (Table 2). For each taxon appearing in the Tables, the botanical and the common names, the used part(s), as well as the traditional uses, are also reported.
The botanical family with the highest number of medicinal plants listed in Tables 1 and 2 is Asteraceae (10.5%) with 15 native, 1 endemic, and 11 introduced species, followed by Lamiaceae (5.8%) with 4 native and 11 introduced species, and Solanaceae (5.1%) with 13 native species. The other botanical families contain from 1 to 11 species, accounting from 0.4 to 4.3% of the total number of taxa.
The use of endemic and native medicinal species exceeds by far the use of introduced medicinal species. On the other hand, introduced plants have an extensive use in the traditional medicine of Ecuador. This finding has been explained by the great abundance or accessibility (availability hypothesis), the ability to cure pathological conditions that are not treated by native plants (diversification hypothesis), or as a result of many different simultaneous uses (versatility hypothesis) [26].

Culantro extranjero
Phytochemical analysis of the leaves indicated the presence of flavonoids, tannins, a saponin and several triterpenoids, as well as the absence of alkaloids. A significant constituent of the EO of the plant is (E)-2-dodecenal ("eryngial"), accompanied by minor amounts of trimethylbenzaldehyde isomers. Pharmacological studies of the aerial parts have demonstrated anthelmintic activity due to eryngial, anti-inflammatory action due to the phytosterol fractions, anti-convulsant activity, and selective antibacterial activity against Salmonella and Erwinia species [28].

Whole plant
It is used to treat stomach pain [22].

12
Lacmellea spaciosa Woodson Chicle No information is reported in literature. Fruits Huaorani eat fruits. The latex from the trunk is used to clean teeth and as chewing gum [19].

Bark
It is used orally to treat general disorders of the digestive system [21].

Palma de ramos
No information is reported in literature.

Leaves
The aerial parts are used as incense [4].

Branches
It is used orally to treat general disorders of the urinary system [21].

Branches
Branches are rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21].

Leaves, branches
Pain relief (joints, head, throat), and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, and muscular problems. Topical applications and rubbings are also used to treat disorders of the dermatological system and culture-related syndromes [18,21]. 19

Ambrosia artemisioides Meyen & Walpers ex Meyen Marco
Compounds derived from allantolactone, as well as epieudesmane and oplopanone sesquiterpenes have been isolated from samples of A. artemisioides collected in the Tacna region of southern Peru [31].

Branches
To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire in Spanish) d [4].  [32].

Branches
Branches are rubbed to treat culture-related syndromes [21]. and gargles are used to heal disorders of the respiratory system [21].

Chilca
The flavonoids oblongifoliosides A and B have been isolated from the leaves [33]. Branches To cure a restless and confused child, and in postpartum baths [4].

Whole plant, flowers
To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída), pain relief (at joints, head, throat), and as an anti-inflammatory [4,16].  Ushcu chaqui, pata de gallinazo, trensilla No information is reported in literature.

Branches
To cure a restless and confused child and used as a tonic and in energy baths [4].

Uña kushma
No information is reported in literature.

Whole plant
To heal liver and kidney inflammations [4].

Jujumba
Lupeol was identified in the callus extract [37]. Leaves It is used orally to treat disorders of the dermatological system [22].

Lutuyuyu
No information is reported in literature.

Whole plant
In baths for children, and to cure fever and headache [4].

Begonia x tuberhybrida Voss Begonia rosada
No information is reported in literature. Flowers, petals To treat constipation [16]., and used as a sedative and tonic [20].

34
Alnus acuminata Kunth Aliso No information is reported in literature. Leaves, buds To cure headaches, and to treat bone fractures, sprains, and dislocations [4].

Berro
No information is reported in literature. Whole plant It is used orally to cure disorders of the circulatory system [21]. 36 Lepidium chichicara Desv.

Chichira negra
No information is reported in literature.

Whole plant
To decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish), to cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4].

37
Lepidium thurberi Wooton Chichira No information is reported in literature. Plant without roots It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].

38
Tillandsia straminea Kunth Flor de cristo, clavel del aire No information is reported in literature.

Flowers
It is used to treat neurological disorders [21].

Leaves
It is used to treat general neurological and respiratory problems [21,22].

Conocarpus erectus L. Botoncillo
The extracts of leaves, shoot, bark, and fruit showed high antibacterial, antioxidant, and hepta-protective activities due to phenolic content. Tannins and flavonoids were the main constituents. Tannins exhibited high antibacterial activity [40].

Leaves
To treat skin conditions and fainting spells [19].

Fruits
To cure earache and to decrease disease relapses after recovery (locally known as recaída in Spanish) [4].

Cola de caballo, caballo chupa
No information is reported in literature.

Leaves
To treat general digestive and circulatory problems [21].

61
Sapium glandulosum (L.) Morong Caucho LC-MS analysis of the latex revealed the presence of tigliane-type diterpenoids, especially 12-deoxyphorbol esters. Considering that 12-deoxytigliane diterpenes are described as antitumor and antiviral agents, these results indicated that this plant has pharmacological potential [45].

Leaves
An infusion of burnt leaves is used to remove pimples from the skin. The leaves are used to cure fainting [19].

Uña de gato
The sugars identified in gum exudates of eight specimens of A. macracantha collected in Venezuela were galactose, arabinose, glucuronic acid, 4-O-methylglucuronic acid, and rhamnose [46].
San Antonio, hierba de san Antonio, hierba del ángel No information is reported in literature.

Bark
To treat general respiratory disorders [22].  Juglanin and (+)-lyoniresinol were isolated from the leaves. Both compounds showed significant cell regeneration in neomycin-damaged hair cell without cellular toxicity [51].

Leaves
In postpartum baths and to relieve bone pain [4].

MORACEAE
83 The latex has medicinal and technological uses and serves as an adhesive to bandage wounds. To treat kidney diseases and rheumatic pain, stomach pain and ulcers, varicose veins, hepatic inflammatory processes, and used as a vermifuge [19].

Fruits
It is used orally to treat disorders of the digestive system [21]. Anti-inflammatory and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat gynecological, nervous, and dermatological disorders [21].

Flor de cristo anaranjada
No information is reported in literature.

95
Epidendrum fimbriatum Kunth Flor de cristo blanca, espíritu No information is reported in literature.

Flor de cristo violeta, maywa
No information is reported in literature. Flowers Used as an anti-inflammatory, sedative, diuretic, and hepatic remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat dermatological disorders [21].

Sacha congona
Tetrahydrofuran lignans and flavones were isolated from the aerial parts. Some lignans exhibited high in vitro trypanocidal activity against epimastigotes of Trypanosoma cruzi strain Y. [57].

Plant roots
It is used orally to treat neurological disorders [21]. As an analgesic and sedative remedy [20]. It is used orally to treat neurological and sensorial disorders [21].

Leaves
As an analgesic and antiseptic remedy, and against stomachache [20]. It is used orally to treat hormonal and respiratory disorders [21].
Whole plant It is used orally to treat musculoskeletal disorders [21].

109
Rumex tolimensis Wedd Turu No information is reported in literature.

Stems, leaves
To promote hair growth and against dandruff [4].

Roots
It is used orally to treat digestive and urological disorders [21].  [4]. It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].

Culantrillo
No information is reported in literature. Leaves It is used orally to treat gynecological and urological disorders [21].

Helecho congona
No information is reported in literature. Leaves It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].

Grano de oro
The main constituent of the yellow frond exudate of this fern was identified as 3,5,2 -trihydroxy-7-methoxy-8-acetoxy flavone. The 5,2 -dihydroxy-7,8-dimethoxy flavone was also found, along with some common flavonoids. The white form of the fern produced three dihydrochalcones that were accompanied by some kaempferol methyl ethers and apigenin-7-methyl ether. The 3-acetoxy as well as the 3-butyryloxy and the 4 -butyryloxy derivatives of 7-methyl aromadendrin were also identified [62].

Leaves
It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].

Leaves
It is used orally to treat gynecological disorders [21].
Plant without roots It is used orally to treat respiratory and dermatological disorders [21]. 122

Leaves
In postpartum baths and to cure bone pain [4]. 123

Rubus urticifolius Poir Mora silvestre
No information is reported in literature.

Bud and flowers
To cure gangrene [4].

Bark
It is used orally to treat respiratory problems [21,22].

Leaves
The latex is used to remove subcutaneous larvae. The leaf infusion is used to treat skin infections [19]. The alkaloids, scopolamine and anisodamine, were produced in a modified bioreactor culture system [69].

Flowers, leaves
To cure the fever or the cold caused by cold air or strong winds (locally known as mal aire (bad air) d [4,21,22]. The UPLC-ESI-MS/MS metabolic profile of an EtOAc extract of fruits cultivated in Egypt allowed the identification of several phenolic compounds. Moreover, the EtOAc extract showed remarkable α-amylase, β-glucosidase, and lipase inhibitory effects. In an in vivo antihyperglycemic test with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats, the EtOAc extract decreased the blood glucose level, prevented the reduction of body weight, and improved serum indicators of kidney injury [70].

Mortiño, hierba mora
No information is reported in literature.

136
Solanum juglandifolium Dunal Matico No information is reported in literature.

Hierba mora
The antifungal activity of the extracts was attributed to the presence of a spirostanol glycoside, cantalasaponin-3 [71].

Monte de gallinazo
No information is reported in literature.

Abrojo, cadillo, monstrante
No information is reported in literature.

Valeriana pyramidalis Kunth Valeriana
No information is reported in literature.

Roots
It is used orally to treat neurological problems [21]. 143

144
Aloysia citriodora Paláu Cedrón The effect of continuous and pulsed ultrasound pre-treatments (15,30, and 45 min), followed by conventional hydrodistillation, on the characteristics of isolated essential oils (EOs) from dried leaves of A. citriodora was evaluated for the first time. Moreover, the chemical composition, the antibacterial and antioxidant activities, as well as the contents in heavy metals (iron, copper, lead, arsenic, and cadmium) of the Eos were determined [73].
a The names of endemic plants have been underlined. b Data obtained by research groups working in countries other than Ecuador. c The plant is also cultivated. d A supernatural disease. Agave americana L. a,b Cabuya, penco, chaguarquero Stems To heal bone fractures and dislocations [4].

3
Aerva sanguinolenta (L.) Blume a,b Escancel Whole plant without roots It is used in topical applications, orally, and in poultices and washings to treat general disorders of the dermatological, digestive, gynecological, urinary, and nervous systems, and to cure renal problems and culture-related syndromes [18,21]. 4

Sacha jícama Leaves
To treat diarrhea in children from 1 to 6 months of age [4].

22
Tagetes erecta L. a,b Killo rosa, f lor de muerto, calendula Branches, flowers Against vaho de agua c (a supernatural disease, presumed to be due to exposure to water-vapors). The plant is rubbed to heal culture-related syndromes [4,21].

29
Brassica oleracea 'Acephala' a,b Col silvestre Stems To cure liver and kidney inflammations and infections, and postpartum infections [4].

43
Cucurbita maxima D'uchense ex Lam. a,b Zapallo Leaves To cure diarrhea in children from 1 to 6 months of age [4].

46
Medicago sativa L. a,b Alfalfa Leaves To treat circulatory problems, especially lack of sensitivity at the body extremities (e.g., hands, feet, and/or toes) [4].

67
Linum usitatissimum L. a,b Linaza Seeds, leaves, stalk It is used to treat general disorders of the digestive and urological systems [15,22]. Anti-inflammatory, digestive, hepatic, diuretic, to treat stomachache and kidney problems, inflammation of liver and kidney, and gastrointestinal and respiratory problems [4,16,18,20].

72
Malva parviflora L. a,b Malva blanca Branches, flowers To treat general gynecological and urological disorders [21].
87 Rosa x alba L. a,b Rosa blanca Flowers To treat infections and flu [22].

89
Rosa cymosa Tratt. a,b Rosa Flowers It is used orally to treat gynecological and urological disorders [21].

91
Citrus x junos Siebold ex Tanaka a,b Naranja agria Fruits It is used orally to treat dermatological problems [21].

92
Citrus limetta Risso a,b Lima dulce Fruits To prevent high blood pressure [22].
93 Citrus x limonum Risso a,b Limón Seeds It is used orally to treat dental pain [22].

105
Hedychium coronarium J.Köning a,b Jazmín de río, caña agria Stems It is used orally to treat problems of the urinary system [21,22]. a The plant is also cultivated. b The phytochemistry and biological activities of the plant have already been investigated by scholars working in countries other than Ecuador. c A supernatural disease.
The fact that Asteraceae (Compositae) is the family with the highest number of medicinal taxa is not unexpected because it is one of the largest flowering plant families, consisting of over 32,000 known species in over 1900 genera distributed worldwide [23,24]. All species are good sources of inulin, a natural polysaccharide with strong prebiotic properties. They have also demonstrated high antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antimicrobial activities, as well as diuretic and wound-healing properties. A few taxa also contain cytotoxic metabolites. These pharmacological effects are attributed to a range of phytochemical compounds, including polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, polyenes, alkaloids, sesquiterpene lactones, diterpenoids, triterpenes, and essential oils [77]. Species belonging to Lamiaceae are known for the contents of aromatic volatile compounds, whereas the characteristic chemical constituents of Solanaceae species are biologically active alkaloids of the steroidal, tropane, and nicotine types [77].
Some species belonging to the Lycopodiaceae family are traditionally used to treat supernatural diseases and to perform religious rituals due to their psychoactive effects [78]. The extracts contain alkaloids of the Lycopodium type and exhibited an interesting cholinesterase activity [3]. Therefore, related Lycopodiaceae species reported in Table 1, such as H. sellifolia, L. weberbaueri, and H. austroecuadorica deserve to be studied from a phytochemical and pharmacological point of view, especially in the search for natural remedies for agerelated neurodegenerative diseases [79]. In this context, it is worthwhile to note that a few endemic species belonging to the genus Fuchsia, such as F. harlingii, F. hypoleuca, and F. loxensis, which are used in the traditional medicine for neurological treatments, have not yet received adequate scientific attention by scholars of natural products.
Other still uninvestigated native plants which might offer interesting research opportunities belong, inter alia, to the families of Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Ericaceae, Orchidaceae, Piperaceae, and Solanaceae, which are well known sources of specialized metabolites with various chemical structures and different biological activities [77].
On the other hand, several species of the genus Amaranthus are traditionally cultivated in Central and South America, where local people use seeds or leaves as food and herbal remedies [80]. Therefore, the traditional uses of A. caudatus, A. cruentus, A. hybridus, and A. quitensis deserve to be validated with scientific evidence to enhance their sustainable use as a food supplement or in phytopharmaceutical products. Another plant of promising scientific and practical interest is Phyla strigulosa (family Verbenaceae). In fact, in preliminary investigations, we have found that it can be used to prepare non-caloric sweeteners.
The plants reported in Tables 1 and 2 are most widely used as analgesic, antidiarrheal, anti-flu, anti-inflammatory, antitussive, carminative, sedative, digestive, tonic, and pain relief (joints, head, throat, stomach) remedies, against colic, to cure the cold, and to treat gastrointestinal, respiratory, dermatological, renal-urological, gynecological, and neurological problems. The frequency of these uses clearly reflects the spread of these diseases in Indigenous communities. In this regard, it is important to highlight the limited number of plants used against cancer, while it is quite stunning to note the large number of species used to cure nervous and general neurological problems. It would be interesting to investigate the causes of such diseases in a relatively poor country such as Ecuador, because these diseases are usually considered typical of affluent societies.
Several plants listed in Tables 1 and 2, which belong to different genera and even to different families, are often used to treat the same disease or the same group of diseases. This finding may suggest that compounds with different chemical structures display the same bioactivity or that compounds of the same type occur in the different species.
Most plants reported in this review are used against well-defined pathologies, for which appropriate in vitro biological tests and even clinical trials can be executed to confirm the effectiveness of the positive effects and to direct the isolation of bioactive compounds. Other plants are, instead, used against ill-defined diseases, such as those employed to cure 'culture-related syndromes', or 'a restless and confused child', or a generic 'disease of the body'. Even harder to decipher, under the perspective of western medicine, are the so-called supernatural and magical diseases such as the 'mal aire (bad air)', 'air water' or 'evil eye'. However, these beliefs are part of the cultural heritage of this population and are, therefore, of great anthropological interest.

Conclusions
We believe that a critical evaluation of the ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological information contained in this review may give several opportunities to develop innovative research and to design practical applications of several traditional plants of Ecuador, with benefits not only to the Indigenous communities but to the entire population of the country. Introduced medicinal plants (Table 2), whose chemical components and biological activities are usually known, have the potential of immediate practical applications. Allium sativum, Mentha piperita, and Aloe vera are representative examples of plants with these characteristics. On the other hand, endemic medicinal species are of primary importance for Ecuador, which is the only owner in the world of unique botanical resources that must therefore be preserved with extreme care. Moreover, the phytochemistry and biological activities of little-investigated endemic plants deserve to be investigated for their potential as new natural sources of isolated compounds or extracts with therapeutic interest. Examples of plants endemic to Ecuador, which have already aroused great scientific interest, are: Lepichinia mutica Benth. (Lamiaceae), which produces appreciable amounts of carnosol, a compound with potent anti-BuChE activity [81]; Gynoxys miniphylla Cuatrec. (Asteraceae), whose EO exhibits promising cholinergic, antiviral, and analgesic effects [82], and Clinopodium tomentosum (Kunth) Govaerts (Lamiaceae), whose leaf extract influences in vitro cell proliferation and angiogenesis on primary cultures of porcine aortic endothelial cells [83].