Mechanistic Insight into Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Potential of Jasminum Species: A Herbal Approach for Disease Management

Drug resistance among microbial pathogens and oxidative stress caused by reactive oxygen species are two of the most challenging global issues. Firstly, drug-resistant pathogens cause several fatalities every year. Secondly aging and a variety of diseases, such as cardiovascular disease and cancer, are associated with free radical generated oxidative stress. The treatments currently available are limited, ineffective, or less efficient, so there is an immediate need to tackle these issues by looking for new therapies to resolve resistance and neutralize the harmful effects of free radicals. In the 21st century, the best way to save humans from them could be by using plants as well as their bioactive constituents. In this specific context, Jasminum is a major plant genus that is used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine to treat a variety of ailments. The information in this review was gathered from a variety of sources, including books, websites, and databases such as Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar. In this review, a total of 14 species of Jasminum have been found to be efficient and effective against a wide variety of microbial pathogens. In addition, 14 species were found to be active free radical scavengers. The review is also focused on the disorders related to oxidative stress, and it was concluded that Jasminum grandiflorum and J. sambac normalized various parameters that were elevated by free radical generation. Alkaloids, flavonoids (rutoside), terpenes, phenols, and iridoid glucosides are among the main phytoconstituents found in various Jasminum species. Furthermore, this review also provides insight into the mechanistic basis of drug resistance, the generation of free radicals, and the role of Jasminum plants in combating resistance and neutralizing free radicals.


Introduction
Emerging infections and the rise in antibiotic resistance among pathogens have been the major challenges that will endanger society's health today. Worldwide, millions of

Search Strategy
Different databases like Science Direct, PubMed, and Google Scholar have been explored in this review with various keywords such as Jasminum species, antimicrobial, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant activity, reactive oxygen species, oxidative stress, phytochemistry, bacterial and antifungal drug resistance. The compilation of literature was carried out between 1 December 2020 and 1 February 2021. In order to maintain quality, only full length, original, and English language papers from Web of Science and Scopus indexed peer-reviewed journals have been included in this study. Further, papers with more than 5 citations are also included in some cases. The current review was compiled based on 100 studies, 34 review papers, 4 website reports, and 5 books that were published between 1971 and 2021.

Distribution of Genus Jasminum
The native range of the genus Jasminum covers tropical, subtropical Old World to Central China and the Pacific region ( Figure 1). Further, they have been introduced into Europe, the Caribbean region, South and Central America, and the U.S.A. [18].

Antimicrobial Profile of Jasminum spp.
A total of 14 Jasminum spp. have been documented for their anti-microbial activity against Gram positive and negative bacterial strains, and fungal pathogens. In terms of efficacy against a wide variety of bacterial pathogens and minimal antifungal activity, all of the Jasminum plants are extremely encouraging.
A fraction of acetone extract from the leaves of Jasminum azoricum has shown anti-Staphylococcus aureus activity with the highest inhibition zone (30 mm at 30 mg/mL) among all the 14 species studied, whereas methanolic extract of Jasminum syringifolium leaves exhibited a 22.67-mm inhibition zone against Shigella flexneri (Table 1). Further, jatamansone extract from leaves of Jasminum brevilobum has shown the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC 0.05 µg/mL) against Staphylococcus aureus among all the studied species, whereas, it showed the highest MIC against Escherichia coli (MIC 0.07 µg/mL).    Compared to Gram negative ones, the impact is more obvious in the case of Gram positive pathogens. The difference in susceptibility between Gram negative positive strains is due to structural dissimilarities and composition of membranes [44,45]. Thus, from Table 1, it was concluded that, among other species, Jasminum azoricum and Jasminum brevilobum were found to be the most active species.
However, most of the plant species displayed no fungal activity except for a few species. Methanol extract of Jasminum grandiflorum subsp. floribundum has demonstrated anti-fungal activity against Candida albicans with a zone of inhibition of 22 mm. Meanwhile, essential oil from flowers extract of Jasminum officinale has shown anti-fungal activity against the Trichosporon ovoides with MIC 3.1 µg/mL.

Role of Jasminum Plants in Combating Resistance
In the 21st century, antibiotic resistance has become a serious public health concern. Bacterial and fungal strains constantly develop new ways through various unknown/undescribed mechanisms to adapt and withstand the biostatic or lethal effects of antibiotics [46,47]. Key factors leading to resistance include misuse and abuse of antimicrobials over decades, inadequate laboratory resources, and poor surveillance. In particular, their introduction to human as well as veterinary medicine contributed a lot in this regard [48][49][50][51].

Bacterial Antibiotic Resistance
The antibacterial drug's mechanism usually involves degradation of the bacterial membrane, and an inhibitory effect on biosynthesis of the cell wall and synthesis of nucleic acid [52][53][54]. Bacterial strains have number of well-differentiated mechanisms by which they survive and develop antibiotic resistance [50,55,56]. The mechanistic basis of resistance includes numerous paths, such as molecular target alteration, efflux pumps' overexpression, formation of biofilm, antibiotic degradation or modification, enzyme mediated destruction, and modification of bacterial target structures [49,50,[57][58][59][60][61][62]. These mechanisms are shown in Figure 2. The mechanisms mentioned above assist bacteria to withstand pressure of antibiotic selection. Hydrolysis, functional group transfer, and structural modifications of antibiotics can be caused by a wide range of bacterial enzymes, thereby limiting their effectiveness. The standard process of making the β-lactam class of antibiotics ineffective is hydrolysis [63][64][65]. In bacterial strains, efflux pumps constitute the major resistance mechanism as their hyperactivity in resistant strains efflux antimicrobials outside the cell, reducing their concentration and thereby rendering them inefficient [59,66]. These mechanisms might be innately encoded within bacterial chromosome and through random mutations in chromosomal genes [56]. In addition, plasmids containing resistance genes can confer antimicrobial resistance [46].

Antibiotic Resistance in Fungi
Fungal infections seem to be a critical threat in clinical research over the past few decades, with immune-compromised individuals becoming readily susceptible. In particular, fungal infections are commonly linked to higher mortality [67]. Moreover, in healthy populations with an increased occurrence of fungal pathogens such as Aspergillus fumigatus, there are increasing indications of fungal infections, rendering fungi a potent threat. Candida auris, for example, made headlines as an emerging pandrug-resistant microorganism to effective antifungal drugs [67]. Four major groups, namely azoles, polyenes, echinocandins, and allylamines constitute currently available antifungal drugs. Ergosterol (polyenes), its biosynthetic route (allylamines and azoles), and β-glucan synthesis (echinocandins) are among the targets of many antifungal drugs; unfortunately, these protein molecules can trigger the emergence of resistance [68]. Polyenes and azoles hinder biosynthesis of ergosterol, a sterol found in fungal membranes. However, their use in humans is confined because of their toxicity that affects mammalian cholesterol which has structural similarities with ergosterol of fungal strains [68]. Considering that drug options are minimal, studies examining resistance mechanisms to current antifungals are valuable.

Protective Role of Jasminum Species
The activity of plants is related to their bioactive composition. Although the mechanisms of action of plant bioactive substances (PBS) are not clear, they are assumed to intervene with cell membrane organisation, leading to decreased membrane potential and lower levels of synthesis of ATP. The addition of PBS to the medium induces cellular membrane permeability, chelation of metal ions, and disruption of membrane-bound ATPase activity that alters the bacteria's physiological state and leads to the death of the bacterial strain [74,75]. PBS is capable of acting on many bacterial resistance production targets. They play an important role as drug-inactivating enzyme inhibitors, as well as being involved in inhibition of efflux pump over-expression. In addition, they inhibit synthesis of protein and DNA and also exhibit anti-biofilm activity ( Figure 2). Several other researchers have expressed similar views. [59,60].
There are reports that carvacrol, thymol, as well as eugenol and catechins are reported for ATP depletion through membrane structure degradation leading to discharge of cellular components [76][77][78]. In addition, tea tree oil, consisting of monoterpenes, terpenes, sesquiterpenes, 1,8-cineol, alpha-terpineol, and terpinen-4-ol, is capable of interfering with the permeability of the membrane, destroying the cell membrane and obstructing cell development, causing cell death in resistant microbes (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Candida albicans [79]).

Antioxidant Potential of Jasminum spp.
In Table 2, the antioxidant potential of Jasminum plants is shown. The ethanol extract from the leaves of J. abyssinicum possessed strong antioxidant activity with IC 50 26.3 µg/mL, which was higher than the standard Trolox (IC 50 5.8 µg/mL) as per DPPH assay, whereas it showed an ORAC value of 1023.7 µg TE/mg extract. Moreover, a moderate amount of total phenolic content (401.3 µg GAE/mg) was also observed in the J. abyssinicum leaves extract by using the total phenolic content assay [96]. The study conducted by Moe et al. [30] demonstrated the antioxidant potential of ethanolic extract from J. sessiliflorum leaves and stems (0.5 mg/mL) by using DPPH, NO, and superoxide radical-scavenging assays as well as by measuring total phenolic content (TPC). In this study, ascorbic acid was used as a standard for DPPH (84.78%) and NO (78.96%) assays, and Gallic acid was used against superoxide (83.24%) radicals. The study revealed that the extract from leaves showed 11.12%, 51.49%, and 51.29% inhibition of DPPH, NO, and superoxide radical-scavenging activity, respectively, while the extract from stems showed only superoxide radical-scavenging activity with a 53.93% inhibitory rate. Also, the total phenolic content observed by leaves and stem extract was 2.09 and 23.23 mg GAE/g, respectively. Dose-dependent (25-400 µg/mL) antioxidant activity of ethanol, chloroform, and petroleum ether leaves extract of J. arborescens was observed by Bhagath et al. [97] with DPPH inhibition ranging from 40-90% and reducing power activity ranging from 0.2-0.45 absorbance at 700 nm. The maximum effect was found in ethanol extract, preceded by chloroform, and petroleum ether extract.   In a subsequent study, the ethanol extract of J. auriculatum leaves showed DPPH scavenging activity with an IC 50 value of 33.39 µg/mL and total phenolic content of 8.47 mg GAE/g, whereas the standard, ascorbic acid, showed an IC 50 value of 35.41 µg/mL in DPPH scavenging assay [32]. Boiling water (BWE), and hydromethanolic (HME) extracts of J. grandiflorum flower buds revealed an antioxidant effect, as evaluated using DPPH, superoxide, nitric oxide, and hydroxyl peroxide scavenging activity. The standard ascorbic acid exhibited IC 50  in DPPH assay were found to be less active than ascorbic (IC 50 6.93 µg/mL). However, BME showed an IC 50 value of 397.09 µg/mL in hydroxyl peroxide radical scavenging activity which was almost similar to HME (IC 50 403.31 µg/mL [98]). Also, the ethanolic extract (JGLE) from leaves of J. grandiflorum displayed potent DPPH scavenging ability (IC 50 15 µg/mL) which was equivalent to ascorbic acid (IC 50 12 µg/mL). Moreover, JGLE also showed nitric oxide radical scavenging ability with IC 50 98 µg/mL compared to standard, curcumin (IC 50 92 µg/mL). Furthermore, JGLE increased reducing power with IC 50 19.5 µg/mL, where the IC 50 value for standard quercetin was 15.5 µg/mL. In the superoxide anion assay, reduction of nitro blue tetrazolium (NBT) was found to rise in a dose-dependent pattern [99].
Likewise, Chaturvedi and Tripathi [100] inferred that the methanolic leaves extract of J. grandiflorum have strong antioxidant potential as evaluated by using iron-induced lipid peroxidation, reducing power, and trapped ABTS•+, superoxide, and superoxide radicals scavenging assays. The results showed that the extract showed ABTS•+ and superoxide scavenging activity with EC 50 222.50 and 207 µg/mL, respectively, where vitamin C (EC 50 36.72 µg/mL) was used as a standard for ABTS•+ assay. Moreover, the extract exhibited lower reducing capabilities at a concentration of 71.42 µg/mL compared to standard BHT (63.29 µg/mL) at 700 nm absorbance (Optical density 0.1). Concurrently, the extract inhibited iron-induced lipid peroxidation with EC 50 667.53 µg/mL, whereas the standards, BHT & quercetin, showed lipid peroxidation inhibition with EC 50 0.75 and 0.21 µg/mL, respectively. In the hydroxyl scavenging assay, the extract in the presence of EDTA scavenged hydroxyl radicals (non-site-specific reaction) with EC 50 288.19 µg/mL, while in the absence of EDTA (site-specific reaction) it showed EC 50 102.16 µg/mL. Along with this, the standard drug, BHT, showed EC 50 0.22 µg/mL for site-specific reaction and at 0.58 µg/mL for a non-site-specific reaction. Aqueous extract (500, 1000, 1500, and 2000 µg/mL) of J. malabaricum leaves, roots, and bark showed 7%, 22.2%, 44.4%, and 66.6% hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity, respectively, when compared with standard ascorbic acid (86%) [101].
The 90% methanolic and aqueous extracts of J. mesnyi leaves showed DPPH scavenging ability with IC 50 25.27 and 71.84 µg/mL, respectively, whereas the standard ascorbic acid and rutoside showed IC 50 8.84 and 3.78 µg/mL, respectively. Moreover, a concentrationdependent increase in reducing power was observed with both extracts (methanolic and aqueous) in the FRAP method. In addition, methanol extract, aqueous extract, and BHT (standard) displayed lipid peroxidation inhibitory activity with IC 50 84.69, 145.62, and 48.89 µg/mL, respectively [102].
Subsequently, a recent study of the 80% methanolic leaves extract from J. multiflorum, J. azoricum, J. humile, J. officinale, and J. sambac from two different locations (Arabian nights and Grand Duke of Tuskany) possessed DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC 50 [94]. Guo et al. [104] showed that the isolated compounds Jasnervosides A-H isolated from stems of J. nervosum showed DPPH radical scavenging activity with inhibitory percentage ranges of 18.44 to 82.6%. Among the tested compounds, Jasnervosides A, B, D, and G exerted strong antioxidant activity with IC 50 0.22, 0.09, 0.19, and 1.21 µg/mL, respectively, whereas ascorbic acid showed IC 50 0.88 µg/mL. Jasminum nudiflorum water-soluble and fat-soluble flower fractions showed ferricreducing antioxidant power (FRAP) activity of 11.05 and 3.71 µmol Fe(II)/g, respectively, with total phenolic content of 2.42 and 0.66 mg GAE/g, respectively. Moreover, water soluble and fat-soluble flower fraction revealed trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity of 3.85 and 0.79 µmol trolox/g, respectively [105]. In another study, aqueous extract of J. officinale leaves displayed antioxidant potential with IC 50 41.16, 30.29, 20.19, and 29.48 µg/mL by using DPPH, nitric oxide, superoxide, and ABTS•+ radical scavenging assays, respectively, with ascorbic acid as a standard (IC 50 42.79, 36.74, 38.22, and 45.57 µg/mL, respectively). Moreover, the aqueous extract and ascorbic acid both showed a concentration-dependent reducing power (200-1000 µg/mL) as the absorbance increased with an increase in concentration by using reducing power assay [93]. Also, the 80% methanolic extract of J. officinale leaves displayed DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC 50 value of 76.6 µg/mL [94], whereas J. multiflorum flower methanolic extract showed DPPH radical scavenging activity with IC 50 value of 81 µg/mL [106]. Interestingly, the extract of J. grandiflorum dried flower buds proved to be a beneficial neuroprotective agent by acting on monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), which catalyzes the reaction of monoamine deamination. Compared to the reference standard, clorgyline, J. grandiflorum extracts showed a higher MAO-A inhibiting activity, thereby supporting its antioxidant potential to alleviate symptoms of depression and lower cell oxidative injury [98].
Antioxidant activity is challenging to distinguish on basis of a single test model. Several in vitro methods that are used to assess the antioxidant effect of the desired samples such as DPPH radical scavenging assay, Hydroxyl scavenging assay, ABTS scavenging assay, Oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) LPO inhibition capacity (LPIC) assay, β-carotene-linoleic acid (linoleate) assay, and so forth. These test techniques differ from one another based on cost, accessibility, etc.
It is evident from Figure 4 that in in vitro study, four methods that are most frequently used are DPPH > Nitric oxide > superoxide radical > hydrogen-peroxide radical scavenging assay. On the basis of the most used method, phenylpropanoid glycoside (Jasnervoside B), isolated from the stems of J. nervosum, exhibited strong antioxidant potential with IC 50 0.09 µg/mL. Considerably, DPPH is considered the quickest, simplest, and rational approach out of all the in vitro methods, and thus it is used mainly for a sample's antioxidant activity assessment. Further, Figure 4 shows that Jasminum spp. leaves have the highest frequency of plant parts used, followed by flower, stems, whole plant, and LRB (leaves, roots, and bark).

Oxidative Stress Related Diseases
Oxidative stress caused by ROS damages biomolecules (lipids, proteins, or DNA) thus contributing to cell survival regulation, inflammation, and stress responses [107][108][109]. Prolonged oxidative stress results in damage of body organs, which can potentially lead to the progression of chronic diseases like myocardial infarction, rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes, inflammatory diseases, cancer, vascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, and other metabolic diseases [110,111]. Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants provide a defense mechanism against free radicals by quenching or scavenging them from having harmful effects on the body. Catalase, thioredoxin, coenzyme Q, glutathione peroxidase, beta carotenoids, superoxide dismutase, polyphenols, glutathione, glutathione transferase, and glutathione reductase are widely evaluated antioxidants in the treatment of oxidative damage related diseases [112][113][114][115].

Impact of Jasminum Plants against Oxidative Stress In Vivo
The role of Jasminum spp. in combating oxidative stress related disorders is highlighted in Table 3. The anti-lipid peroxidative potential and chemopreventive efficacy of ethanolic extract (JgEt) from flowers of J. grandiflorum was evaluated on 7,12-enz(a)anthracene (DMBA; 25 mg, s.c.)-induced Wistar albino rat mammary carcinogenesis. The extract (300 mg/kg p.o.) completely prevented the occurrence of tumours, while preneoplastic lesions that were mild to moderate (hyperplasia, dysplasia, and keratosis) were found in histopathological evaluation of extract-treated rats. Moreover, JgEt significantly (p < 0.05) downregulated the levels of TBARS and improved the antioxidant status when compared with the DMBA-treated group. In addition, the extract markedly incremented (p < 0.05) in vitamin C level (in plasma), vitamin E level (in plasma and erythrocytes), and reduced glutathione level (in plasma and erythrocytes) with respect to the DMBA group. Also, superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT) levels were increased in mammary plasma, erythrocytes, and tissues of DMBA-treated rats, however, levels of vitamin E, glutathione peroxidase, and reduced glutathione were lowered (p < 0.05) in mammary tissue of experimental animals as compared to DMBA-treated rats. It was concluded that the extract showed chemopreventive efficacy in experimental mammary carcinogenesis [116]. Also, the hydromethanolic (HME) and boiling water (BWE) extracts of J. grandiflorum flower buds (dried) were assessed for in vitro efficacy towards central nervous system (CNS) disorders by measuring acetylcholinesterase (AChE), monoamine oxidase A (MAO-A), and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) inhibitory activity. It was observed that, both the extracts displayed MAO-A inhibitory activity with IC 50 values of 603.16 µg/mL (HME) and 699.74 µg/mL (BWE) whereas the reference compound (clorgyline) showed an IC 50 value > 0.012 µg/mL. Moreover, BWE, HME, and galantamine (reference compound) exhibited AChE inhibition with IC 25 1731.08, 1913.06, and 0.79 µg/mL, respectively. In addition, BuChE was highly inhibited by HME (IC 50 2610.87 µg/mL) followed by BWE (IC 50 5175.75 µg/mL) but weaker than reference compound, galantamine (IC 50 4.71 µg/mL). It was concluded from the study that the dried flower buds from J. grandiflorum can be used in treating psychiatric disorders and this activity is associated with antioxidant protection [98]. ↑ vitamin C (plasma) ↑reduced glutathione (plasma and erythrocytes) ↑ SOD, CAT (plasma, erythrocytes and mammary tissues) ↑ glutathione peroxidase (plasma, erythrocytes) ↓TBARS ↓ reduced glutathione (tissue) ↓glutathione peroxidase (tissue) [116] Jasminum grandiflorum L.  ↓ ROS production ↓ aging markers, such as p16, p21, and p53, ↓ MMP-1 ↓ SA-β-Gal -positive cells ↓ p-ERK, p-JNK, p-P38, and p-c-jun protein levels ↑ p-smad2/3 in the nuclear fraction ↑ TGFβ, p-smad2/3, COL1A1, and COL3A1 protein levels ↑ phoshpho-Nuclear respiratory factor 2 and antioxidant gene expression (HO-1) Similarly, Chaturvedi and Tripathi [100] showed that the methanolic leaves (100-800 µg/mL) extract of J. grandiflorum significantly (p < 0.001) inhibited LPS (20 ng/mL)induced NO production in peritoneum fluid isolated macrophages from normal healthy Charles Foster (CF) strain albino rats in a concentration-dependent manner (300-800 µg/mL) with an inhibitory range of 9.5 to 4.41 µM/1 × 10 5 cells as compared with an experimental control value (14.15 µM/1 × 10 5 cells). Additionally, the wound healing effect of ointment (2% and 4%, topically) prepared using J. grandiflorum leaves methanolic extract was evaluated on cutaneous wound healing in diabetic Charles Foster (CF) strain albino rats. The extract (2% and 4%) significantly contracted wounds by 76.35% (p < 0.05) and 96.12% (p < 0.01), respectively, on day 12 as compared to the diabetic control group (62.94%). Moreover, the levels of total hydroxyl proline, hexosamine, protein, and DNA were all substantially higher (p < 0.01) at 4% ointment treatment, and a little less significant (p < 0.05) at 2% ointment treatment when compared to the diabetic control group. Furthermore, 4% of ointment-treated wounds displayed highly significant (p < 0.01) tensile strength on day 10 in comparison to the untreated wounds. Histopathological analysis revealed that ointment in a concentration-dependent manner (2% and 4%) increased fibrous tissue, collagen, and blood vessels. Also, ointment at 4% significantly led to the rise of SOD (p < 0.05), catalase (p < 0.001), and GSH (p < 0.05) content, whereas it decreased lipid peroxidation level (p < 0.05) in wound tissue with respect to the diabetic control group. Additionally, this ointment at 2% significantly (p < 0.05) effected only catalase level. Thus, it was concluded that the wound healing effect of ointment from J. grandiflorum leaves was through antioxidants [117]. The anti-inflammatory potential of the ethanol root extract (EJS; 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, p.o.) of J. sambac was investigated using acute (carrageenaninduced paw edema), and sub-chronic (cotton pellet-induced granuloma) inflammation model of Charles Foster albino rats using diclofenac (10 mg/kg p.o) as a reference standard. It was found that, EJS (400 mg/kg) and standard significantly (p < 0.001) inhibited rat paw edema after 3, 4, and 6 h of treatment as compared to the untreated control. Moreover, EJS inhibited granuloma formation by 3.7%, 5.93%, and 33.58% at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg, while diclofenac showed 43.40% inhibition in granuloma formation. In addition, EJS extract decreased AST (p < 0.05 and p < 0.05), ALT (p < 0.05 and p < 0.05), and lipid peroxidation (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01) levels, whereas it increased SOD (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01) and catalase (p < 0.001) in rats edematous tissue after acute and sub-chronic inflammation exposure, respectively in comparison to respective model groups. Also, EJS extract decreased lipid peroxidation (p < 0.001) levels whereas enhanced SOD (p < 0.05 and p < 0.05) and catalase (p < 0.01) in the serum of acute and sub-chronic inflammation model, respectively, with respect to their model group. Likewise, the standard, diclofenac, markedly (p < 0.05) reversed the altered parameters in serum and edematous tissue by both the models [118].
With a detailed understanding of the role of diseases generated by oxidative stress, Jasminum provided a useful approach in relation to their respective criteria for possible interventions in diseases related to oxidative stress (Table 3). Sengar et al. [118] scientifically validated the anti-inflammatory effect of J. sambac ethanol root extract against acute and chronic inflammation models with respect to their reference standard, diclofenac. The results suggested that the diclofenac illustrated efficient restoration of altered biochemical parameters in both acute and sub-chronic models' edematous and granulomatous tissues than the plant extract. This plant has been used since ancient times as an anti-inflammatory, anti-pyretic, and anti-nociceptive agent [120,121]. Also, J. sambac leaves have been studied for their anti-inflammatory [122] and analgesic properties [123]. Due to the obvious negative effects of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medicines (NSAIDs) and opioids, there is a strong demand for new products with minimal or no side effects and medicinal plants such as Jasminum will play a crucial role in this context.

Mechanistic Basis of ROS Neutralization
Adenosine triphosphates (ATPs), the energy currencies of the cell, are generated by mitochondria. Some low-energy electrons are released near the nucleus during the energy conversion, which are disposed of by the reduction of molecular oxygen to water, whilst a few of them escape and lead to the formation of superoxide radicals (O 2 − *) [130]. In a biological system, there are several different types of free radicals, but those generated from oxygen like superoxide anion (O 2 − *), singlet oxygen (O=O), are commonly referred to as reactive oxygen species (ROS). This superoxide anion can lead to the development of a variety of other reactive species like nitrosoperoxycarbonate, hydroxyl radical, peroxynitrite, and hydrogen peroxide through multiple chain reactions or pathways. However, certain key enzymes like glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) assist to break down these free radicals into harmless and less active molecules (hydrogen peroxide/alcohol and O 2 ) [130][131][132][133][134][135]. Among all, SOD is a key player for radical neutralization ( Figure 5). SOD is the first line defensive enzyme that assists in the dismutation of superoxide radicals into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. In contrast, some of the hydrogen peroxide molecules in the presence of reduced iron (Fe 2+ ), in what is called a Fenton reaction, are reduced into the deleterious (OH − ) hydroxyl radical [135]. The hydroxyl radical is one of the highly reactive radicals which can result in cell toxicity [136,137]. CAT, GPx, and other enzymes prevent the formation of hydroxyl radical (OH − ), by degrading the hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 ) into O 2 and H 2 O. Sometimes, the hydroxyl radical facilitates the formation of lipid radicals (LR*) by acting on the lipid membrane, which further leads to the formation of lipid peroxy radical (LPR*) in combination with oxygen. This can result in attenuation of membrane-bound enzymes activity [138], dysfunction of membrane receptors [139], altered membrane permeability [140], as well as enhancing the rigidity of the membrane while lowering its fluidity [141]. On the other hand, multifaceted antioxidant enzyme, GPx is known to act in the removal of peroxynitrite anion, hydrogen-peroxides, and lipidperoxides [142]. In the presence of NADPH-oxidase enzyme and arginine, superoxide anion and nitric oxide leads to the generation of peroxynitrite anion which is a powerful tissue-damaging oxidant. Furthermore, the peroxynitrite anion may often react with carbon dioxide, resulting in the formation of nitrosoperoxycarbonate, which gradually disintegrates to form nitrogen dioxide and carbonate radicals [143]. SOD, GPx, and CAT are imperative antioxidant enzymes that are crucial against the protection of the bio-system from free radicals. Hence, the proposed protective mechanisms of Jasminum plants explained in Figure 5 against free radicals might be that Jasminum plants would up-regulate the levels of the antioxidants enzymes which would further block the formation of the peroxynitrite anion or disintegrate hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

Conclusions and Perspectives
In conclusion, most bio-activities were determined by the researchers, primarily for crude undefined extracts and the majority of the tests were conducted in vitro. In addition, for oxidative stress associated disorders, only 2 Jasminum species (Jasminum grandiflorum L. Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton) have been studied (in vivo), yet they are highly successful in normalising various elevated parameters. The chemical profile of the Jasminum species revealed the presence of alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins, sterols, phenols, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, and secoiridoid glucosides. No studies have investigated the integrated role of Jasminum with standard drugs. It is expected that the data collected will serve as a useful protocol for researchers of herbal drug industry worldwide to explore various Jasminum species and their active components against human disorders. This review will provide more insight into the development of an effective drug candidate against diseases associated with oxidative stress and also against microbial diseases.