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Article

Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region

by
Shiekh Marifatul Haq
1,2,
Umer Yaqoob
1,
Eduardo Soares Calixto
3,
Inayat Ur Rahman
4,*,
Abeer Hashem
5,
Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah
6,
Maha Abdullah Alakeel
5,
Abdulaziz A. Alqarawi
6,
Mohnad Abdalla
7,
Musheerul Hassan
8,
Rainer W. Bussmann
9,
Arshad Mehmood Abbasi
10,
Sami Ur Rahman
11 and
Farhana Ijaz
4
1
Department of Botany, University of Kashmir Srinagar, Srinagar 190006, India
2
Wildlife Crime Control Division, Wildlife Trust of India, Noida 201301, India
3
Institute of Biology, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05315-970, Brazil
4
Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra 21300, Pakistan
5
Botany and Microbiology Department, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
6
Department of Plant Production, College of Food and Agriculture Science, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
7
Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, 44 Cultural West Road, Jinan 250012, China
8
Clybay Research Private Limited, Bangalore 560114, India
9
Department of Ethnobotany, Institute of Botany, Ilia State University, 1 Botanical Street, Tbilisi 0105, Georgia
10
Department of Environmental Sciences, Abbottabad Campus, COMSATS University Islamabad, Islamabad 22060, Pakistan
11
Nawaz Sharif Kidney Teaching Hospital and Postgraduate Institute Manglawar, Swat 19200, Pakistan
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Biology 2021, 10(9), 827; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827
Submission received: 23 June 2021 / Revised: 4 August 2021 / Accepted: 9 August 2021 / Published: 26 August 2021

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

Indigenous communities are a large resource of increasingly endangered, traditionally used medicinal plants and the associated ecological knowledge, which needs to be documented quickly as the base to establish sustainable livelihoods and healthcare systems. Through the interaction of indigenous knowledge, biodiversity, and the surrounding environment, these communities have developed their livelihoods over time. In this study, we tried to obtain an in-depth understanding of ethnomedicinal, cultural, and ritual perspectives on plant diversity in the Ladakh region and evaluated how the wild flora of Ladakh could improve local livelihoods and alleviate poverty. By surveying and applying open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews and group discussions in three communities, we documented 105 ethnobotanically important plants belonging to 39 families. The Balti and Brokpa ethnic groups showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap in plant use was observed between Beda and Brokpa. Plants common to all cultures were mostly used for medicinal applications, while some were also used for religious purposes in the two major religions (Islam and Buddhism). A total of 37 species were shared by all cultures (Balti, Brokpa, and Beda). The cluster analysis elucidated three major clusters of different ethnobotanical usage. The first cluster included food and medicinal plants, the second included clusters of dye and flavor plants, and the third included plants used for fragrance, oil, fuel wood, and fodder. Plant parts were collected based on their availability in distinct pheno-phases according to the Tibetan traditional calendar. This study’s findings revealed that plants provide tangible economic benefits to indigenous communities, in addition to aiding in the treatment of various ailments. Sustainable use and management of wild resources can help improve livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

Abstract

The nomadic pastoral indigenous communities of the Ladakhi people share roots with Tibetan culture in terms of food, clothing, religion, festivals, and habits, and rely widely on plant resources for survival and livelihood. This survey was conducted during 2019–2021 to document the indigenous knowledge about plant resources of the Balti, Beda, and Brokpa communities of the Ladakh region, trans-Himalayas. Open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews (N = 184) and group discussions (N = 17) were used to collect the data. Quantitative data was further analyzed using various statistical tools. A total of 105 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 39 families were used as medicine, fuel wood, fragrance, oil, food, flavor, fodder, decoration, and dye. Among these, medicinal use was most prevalent, with 70% of use reports, followed by fodder and fuel wood. Leaves (27%) were the most preferred plant part used, followed by roots and flowers. The principal component analysis revealed five clusters of ethnobotanical usage, i.e., food, medicine, fuel wood, fodder, and fragrance, oil, dye, and flavor. The maximum number of plant species used was reported by the Brokpa, while the Beda reported the minimum number of plant species uses. Delphinium brunonianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, and Juniperus indica played a significant role in the cultural and religious ritual aspects, whereas Allium przewalskianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, Juniperus indica, and Hippophae rhamnoides were commonly used as a livelihood source among Ladakhi communities. The local people collected most plants (65%) for self-consumption, while the rest (35%) were sold in markets as a source of income. The sustainable utilization and management of plant resources by local people is a strategy to boost livelihoods and food security and alleviate poverty.

1. Introduction

Humanity has always been dependent on ecosystem services [1]. Plant biodiversity throughout the globe has been providing these ecosystem services in terms of both economy and culture [2], including food and fodder for humans and their livestock, timber, firewood, and herbal remedies for treating various ailments [3]. Many plant resources have cultural importance, e.g., in education, in religion, as totems, for aesthetics, etc., and are important for socio-economic and industrial activities [4,5].
Indigenous communities have developed broad ecological knowledge and are, often, still dependent on wild plants for food, fodder, medicines, and other purposes. The focus on traditional plant foraging is especially vital in remote tribal areas in comprehending its role in the sustainability of food systems and for the promotion and discovery of novel local gastronomies [6]. Ethnomedical practices have resulted in the development of traditional medicinal systems such as Unani, Siddha, Sowa-Rigpa, and Ayurveda and are also part of many even allopathic drugs [7]. The population of developing countries is especially reliant on these traditional plant-based medicines due to the lack of modern health facilities [8]. Ethnobiological field studies have widely shown that indigenous communities represent a significant reservoir of disappearing folk plants and ecological knowledge, which needs to be immediately documented to develop sustainable food and healthcare systems [9]. Wild plants play an imperative role in the livelihood of tribal people [10]. Over the years, traditional knowledge has resulted in the development of systems providing livelihood to the indigenous communities. These sustainable livelihoods are developed over the years through the interaction of indigenous knowledge, biodiversity, and the surrounding environment [11]. Traditional knowledge has also been proved to be effective in the conservation of biological resources, which are important stakeholders in conserving biodiversity. This complex relationship is difficult to manage by outside experts. Thus, to conserve the diversity of different plants used by indigenous communities, it is imperative to involve indigenous communities in conserving them as they know how the different interaction factors work with each other [11].
Ladakh has a rich history of medicinal and wild food plants, but limited studies on the utilization of wild plant species that could help in identifying novel and potential sources of medicines, food, and other plant products have been carried out to document the associated traditional knowledge. The Sowa-Rigpa herbal medicine system is considered the oldest codified healthcare system known to humanity [12]. The conservation of the records of this valuable knowledge is as imperative as medicinal plant conservation [13]. Our study quantified the indigenous ethnomedicinal uses of plants and assessed the distribution, composition, conservation, and trade of medicinal plants of Ladakh. The main objectives of the fieldwork were (1) to gain an in-depth understanding of ethnomedicinal, cultural, and ritual perspectives of plant diversity in the Ladakh region and (2) to evaluate how the wild flora of Ladakh could boost up livelihood and food security and support in poverty alleviation. Various studies have reported medicinal and other ethno uses of plants from Ladakh [14,15]; however, the local population in our study area (Balti, Beda, and Brokpa) has never participated in an ethnobotanical study.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The Ladakh region in the trans-Himalayas of the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is one of the highest plateaus in the world. The study area is part of the previously northern Jammu and Kashmir state and is located at 34°12′34.25″ N and 77°36′54.40″ E (Figure 1). Ladakh covers less than half of the landmass of the state and is surrounded by Tibet (China) to the north and northeast, Gilgit-Baltistan (Pakistan) to the northwest, and Himachal Pradesh to the west. The total area of Ladakh is 59,146 km2, which as per the 2010 census had a population of 290,492, with a population density of 4.91 people/km2, representing the lowest density in the country. Administratively, Ladakh has two districts: Kargil, with 14,036 km2 area and about 143,388 inhabitants, and Leh district (45,110 km2, 147,104 inhabitants) [16]. The largest town in Ladakh is Leh, located at an altitude of 3000 m, followed by Kargil at 2676 m, each of which headquarters a district. The area is cold and dry, with an annual rainfall of less than 120 mm. In winter, the entire area is covered with heavy snow. Most of the settlements are in the river valleys. The flora of Ladakh is a rich source of aromatic and medicinal plants and may be grouped into three broad classes—arid vegetation, alpine mesophytes, and oasitic or riparian vegetation [17].
Leh comprises the Indus, Shyok, and Nubra river valleys, while Kargil includes the Suru, Dras, and Zanskar river valleys. The Nubra, Shyok and Indus River valleys are the most populated areas of the district Leh. The main ethnic groups include Balti, Beda, and Brokpa, all living across both divisions. The Balti tribe is originally of Tibetan descent and mainly found in the Kargil region, although a small population also lives in Leh. The spoken language is known as Balti. The Beda are a unique tribe famous for their musicianship (traditional occupation) and scattered in Ladakh. They predominantly follow the Muslim faith. The Brokpa (people living in mountains) are a small community of Dard people found in Leh and Kargil. Those living in Leh are Buddhists and the inhabitants of Kargil are Muslims. A small number of people have embraced Hinduism. Their language is known as Brokstat.

2.2. Data Collection

The present study was carried out over the period 2019–2021 in the Balti, Beda, and Brokpa ethnic groups. Information was gathered through open- and close-ended semi-structured interviews (N = 184) and group discussions (N = 17) following [16]. Participants (N = 269) included 77.32% men and 22.67% women, of which 7.80% were Amchis (traditional doctors), herders (8.92%), hunters (5.94%), shopkeepers (4.83%), farmers (30.48%), daily wage laborers (7.80%), hotel owners (5.57%), museum owners (0.74%), housewives (19.33%), and government employees (8.55%). Interviews and discussions focused on the ethnobotanical use of local plant resources as medicine, food, fodder, fuel wood, fragrance, dye, decoration, flavor, and oil, including information on harvesting time and season. The ethnicity of the participants and the language information given here are not disclosed, based on mutual agreement as stipulated under the Nagoya Protocol. The code of ethics of the International Society of Ethnobiology was followed [18]. Additionally, one person from each indigenous community, who was well familiar with the traditions and norms of the community, was taken as a guide during all the field surveys. Information was gathered about key plant species used for cultural, religious, and ritual beliefs, and compared to [13,19].
Plant specimens were collected from different sites during the field survey and were properly coded/tagged. Specimens were identified with the help of taxonomists at the CBT Lab, University of Kashmir, Srinagar (J&K), by comparing with herbarium specimens at the KASH herbarium and local floras [20]. The nomenclature and botanical families of all the specimens were further authenticated using www.plantsoftheworldonline.org/ (accessed on 28 November 2020).

2.3. Data Analysis

Analyses of the ethnobotanical uses of plant species were carried out using cluster analysis. We used absence/presence data to show the distribution of the species, clustering species with similar ethnobotanical uses using PAST software ver. 3.14. Sørensen’s (Bray–Curtis) distance similarity coefficient, based on presence/absence data, was used to identify significant differences among diverse ethnobotanical uses and plant species [21,22]. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to visualize provisioning services and plant parts used, using the package “vegan” [23] in the software R 4.0.0 [24]. To evaluate whether there was a difference in the number of plant parts used, we used a generalized linear model (GLM) with binomial distribution, followed by the likelihood-ratio test. The contribution of different plant parts used was displayed in chord diagrams using the circlize package [25] in R software 3.6.1 [23]. The Venn diagram was created using Bioinformatics & Evolutionary Genomics software (http://bioinformatics.psb.ugent.be/cgi-bin/liste/Venn/calculate_venn.htpl (accessed on 21 January 2021)).

3. Results and Discussion

The results of the study revealed that the local population of the study area is still a rich source of herbal medicines and traditional knowledge. Furthermore, the current work evidently indicates the close connection between the local population and provisioning ecosystem services of plants.

3.1. Demographic Details of Respondents and Vegetation Composition

In the present study, the respondents represented a diverse array of professional groups, including daily wage laborers, farmers, government employees, herders, hotel owners, hunters, homemakers, museum owners, shopkeepers, and traditional doctors (Amchis), across three ethnic groups, i.e., Beda (N = 63), Balti (N = 91), and Brokpa (N = 115; Table 1). Among the 269 respondents, 77.3% were men, and the remaining 22.7% were women. A possible reason for the smaller number of female informants is that they are confined to their homes due to cultural restrictions [26,27]. Most of the informants (48%) were 46–65 years old, followed by 66–88 (40%) and 25–45 (12%). More than half of the respondents were without formal education (65%; Table 1). We noticed that older people hold more traditional knowledge than younger people in this area, a fact also reported in earlier studies [28]. As in other parts of the Himalayan region, ethnic knowledge about the uses of different therapeutic plants was decreasing in the younger people of the study area, which may be ascribed to little interest shown by the younger generation in inheriting and using ethnomedical practices [29]. In addition, the illiterate population was found to have more ethnomedical information, which may be ascribed to the fact that educated participants are expected to be exposed to the developed world and mostly rely on modern medicines instead of traditional ones [30]. During the survey, it was noticed that the population in rural areas also had more knowledge of natural resources compared to urban populations.
In this study, we documented 105 ethnobotanically important plants belonging to 82 genera and 39 families (Table 2). The respective uses, i.e., medicine, fuel wood, fragrance, oil, food, flavor fodder, decoration, and dye, are presented in Figure 2. The number of plant species recorded in the study area was close to those documented by earlier ethnobotanical studies in other parts of the Himalayan region. Bhattarai et al. [26] and Ambu et al. [31] reported 121 and 116 species from the trans-Himalayan region of Nepal. Awan et al. [32], Mulk et al. [33], and Ajaib et al. [34] reported a total of 102, 101, and 100 plant species, respectively, from the Western Himalayas of Pakistan. Similar results were reported by Rana and Rawat [35], Kayani et al. [36], and Haider and Qaiser [37] in the Himalayan region. During the field work, it was noted that medicinal plant richness decreased with altitude, while the percentage of use reports of medicinal plants also gradually increased with altitude. This may be a result of the preference given by the local population to medicinal plants from higher-altitude areas. Lone et al. [38] also reported similar results from the Bandipora district of Jammu and Kashmir.
The distribution of the collected plant species in the 39 families was uneven. About half of the collected plant species belonged to just six families, i.e., Asteraceae, Ranunculaceae, Fabaceae, Apiaceae, Lamiaceae, and Polygonaceae, while the remaining half belonged to 32 families. Most of the genera (19) were monotypic (Table 2). Because of their wide range of ecological amplitudes, Asteraceae adapt easily in arid and dry habitats [39,40]. Several studies have found Asteraceae to be a dominant family in surrounding areas [28,41], although Kayani et al. [36] reported Ranunculaceae as the most dominant family from the high-altitude areas of Pakistan. Similar findings were reported by Bhattarai et al. [26] from trans-Himalayan Nepal, Ijaz et al. [42] from the Pakistani Himalayas, and Kala [43] from trans-Himalayan India. Kayani et al. [36] and Abbas et al. [44] found Fabaceae and Ranunculaceae to be prominent families from the Pakistani Himalayas. Similarly, Debbarma et al. [45] reported Fabaceae as the dominant family in northeast India. However, Pala et al. [46] reported Lamiaceae as the leading family from the Eastern Himalayas, which is in line with our results. Similar species distribution patterns were observed by other ethnobotanical studies from the Himalayas [47,48]. The large number of therapeutic plants from the families Asteraceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Polygonaceae is possibly due to the abundance and wider distribution of these families in this area [43]. Furthermore, according to various researchers [49,50,51], the members of these families have a high content of useful bioactive compounds.

3.2. Preference Analysis

We emphasized the numerous ethnobotanical uses of the reported species among the local communities. The results obtained through preference analysis indicated a considerable variance (χ2 = 408.56, df = 7, p < 0.001) in plant usage between the different communities. Medicinal use was overall the most prevalent, with 70% of use reports, followed by fodder, fuel wood, food, fragrance, dye, flavor, and oil (Figure 3a). This demonstrates that local communities prefer the traditional “Sowa-Rigpa” (ancient Indian medicinal system, which evolved in the entire trans-Himalayan region) healthcare system [52]. This also reflects the demand of the pharmaceutical industry, given the high market value for medicinal species [53,54]. Ijaz et al. [42] reported similar results from Pakistan. Haq et al. [48] also reported maximum usage of plants for medicinal purposes from the Northwestern Himalayas, followed by other ethnobotanical uses. Other studies [54,55,56,57] found similar results.
The indigenous community used different plant parts for various ethnobotanical uses (Figure 3b) with a significant difference (χ2 = 100.12, df = 9, p < 0.001) between their usage. The results obtained through preference analysis indicated a noteworthy variance, with leaves (27%) the most used, followed by roots, flowers, stem, fruits, whole plant, bulbs, bark, seeds, and young twigs (Figure 3b). The PCA analysis also supported our results and showed ten individual groups centered on the variations in the preference levels of plant parts usage (Figure 4). PC1 and PC2 explained 50.7% of the parts used in the biplot, in which ten clusters of plant part usage based on species presence/absence can be identified: leaves, roots, bulbs, flowers, seeds, bark, whole plant, fruits, stem, and young twigs (Figure 4). Due to the dependence of local people on wild plant resources for daily cuisine, different plant parts are preferred according to their uses. Leaves are the main photosynthetic organs and thus contain lots of metabolites [28,58]. Furthermore, using leaves and aerial parts is regarded as safe as well as sustainable [59]. Roots are also known to contain a good concentration of bioactive compounds [60,61], and local shepherds, Amchis and herbal drug dealers, and other ethno-groups often prefer to use/trade the roots of plants for medicinal purposes [62].
The overharvesting of underground parts or whole plants should be discouraged, especially in the case of threatened species, as this practice causes elimination and dwindling of the plant’s status in the wild [43,63]. Our findings are also supported by Ahmad et al. [64], Sharif et al. [65], Siddique et al. [66], Anwer et al. [67], and Manduzai et al. [68] from the Pakistan Himalayas; and Debbarma et al. [45] and Krupa et al. [69] from India. Asif et al. [28] and Haq et al. [48] from the Kashmiri Himalayas, India; Pala et al. [46] from the Eastern Himalayas; Singh et al. [70] from the Western Himalayas, India; and Tiwari et al. [71] from the Kumaun Himalayas, India. The collection of plant parts is designed depending upon the availability of plant parts in various pheno-phases following the Tibetan traditional calendar [72]. For example, leaves were collected in spring (April and May), flowers and mature leaves in summer (June and August), and, finally, fruits, roots, and seeds in autumn (September and November). The rural inhabitants, herders, Amchis, and elderly people were aware of plant collection timings and selective harvesting of plants for ethnobotanical usage. A similar pattern of plant part collection was reported by Lone et al. [38], Kala [72], Ghimire et al. [73], and Kala [74], from the Himalayas [38,72,73,74].
Wild leafy vegetables such as Allium przewalskianum, Amaranthus spinosus, Plantago depressa, and Urtica hyperborea growing close to and in human settlements were especially frequently used. The leaves of Urtica hyperborea were commonly used for making soup by the Buddhist inhabitants of Leh. It was also noted that for herbal preparations, plant parts were mostly used in dried form and the reason for this was that the dried plant parts were kept for later seasons, particularly for the winter season [48]. Most of the formulations were prepared and administered at home, like in the results of Lone et al. [38]. The local people in their respective localities were sometimes assisted by other knowledgeable people, when necessary, with no or very low charges. However, it was stated by most of the informants that they kept their knowledge of medicinal plants secret. Furthermore, they revealed that the sharing of traditional knowledge of medicinal plants may take place only with family members, mostly from parents to sons, which is one reason why, in the present study, it was documented that men have more knowledge about medicinal plants than women.

3.3. Cross-Cultural and Religious Analysis

The Venn diagram (Figure 5) shows that the maximum number of plant uses was reported by the Brokpa, while the Beda reported a minimum number of plant uses. The Balti and Brokpa ethnic groups showed greater similarity, whereas the least overlap was observed between Beda and Brokpa. A cross-cultural comparison of plant resources showed that 37 plants were commonly used by all ethnic groups. Gairola et al. [75] also reported on the cross-cultural usage of plants from the Himalayas. Plants common among all cultures mainly had medicinal value, although certain plants were common because of their religious uses in the two main religions (Islam and Buddhism). Some species were found in all cultures (Balti, Brokpa, and Beda).
Many of the plants used in the wider region play a significant role in some cultural and religious ceremonies [76,77]. Delphinium brunonianum (Ba-ru-ra/Ladar) was used by local healers in dealing with evil spirits. Waldheimia tomentosa (Palu) is an aromatic holy plant which was used as incense (locally known as dhoop) in houses and religious places on auspicious religious and cultural days. Palu was also used in the bathing ceremony for deceased persons and in the baby shower of newborns in the Buddhist faith. The dried leaves of Waldheimia tomentosa were added to hot water and then used during bathing. Similarly, it was found that Juniperus indica (Shukpa) was used as incense by Buddhists in their monasteries and in religious and marriage events, as well as in dealing with nightmares. The dried leaves of this plant were burned in a mud pot to produce smoke, which was kept in front of people who were dealing with bad dreams, especially by Muslims. Plant species such as Codonopsis ovata and Cremanthodium ellisii were used to fend off evil spirits. The seeds of Datura stramonium (Esman) were used by the Balti tribe for dealing with evil spirits. Branches of Salix pycnostachya Andersson (Malchang) were used as pillows for corpses in graves (Muslim faith). A similar usage of plant resources for religious and ritual beliefs was reported by Amjad et al. [78] from Pakistan and Sharma et al. [79] from Assam, India.

3.4. Classification of Ethnobotanical Usage

Cluster analysis elucidated three clusters of different ethnobotanical uses based on floristic similarity. The first cluster included food and medicinal plants, the second included dye and flavor plants, and the third included plants used for fragrance, oil, fuel wood, and fodder (Figure 6). Species such as Amaranthus spinosus, Allium humile, and Allium przewalskianum, having both medicinal and food value, were grouped in the first cluster. Plants such as Artemisia absinthium and Oxytropis microphylla, used as dyes as well as flavoring agents, fell into the second cluster. Plants such as Caragana versicolor and Hippophae rhamnoides, used as fodder as well as fuel wood and oil sources, formed a separate, third cluster. The principal component analysis (PCA) also supported these results, showing distinct use clusters based on variations in the preference levels (Figure 7). The PCA correlated the most important components with other underlying variables. PC1 and PC2 explained 89.2% of the provisioning services in the biplot, in which five clusters of ethnobotanical usage based on species presence/absence can be identified: food, medicine, fuel wood, fodder, and fragrance, oil, dye, and flavor. Similar classifications were found in previous studies. For example, Asif et al. [28] reported five groups of wild plants from tribal communities in the tehsil of Karnah (Jammu and Kashmir), India. Haq et al. [48] classified the wild plants of district Reasi into four plant usage groups. Rivera et al. [80] observed eight major clusters in the mountains of Castilla-La Mancha (Spain). Similarly, multivariate analysis was used by Balemie and Kebebew [81], Leduc et al. [82], Caneva et al. [83], and Haq et al. [84] for quantitative ethnobiological approaches in their studies.

3.5. Important Medicinal Plant Species, Their Local Uses, and Trade Status

The local inhabitants collected most plants for self-use (65%) or for income earning (35%). Every single medicinal plant found in the study area is valuable in the local healthcare system, although some have especially high significance value in the traditional “Sowa-Rigpa” healthcare system, e.g., Aconitum heterophyllum, Aconitum violaceum, Arnebia guttata, Arnebia euchroma, Aster flaccidus, Bergenia stracheyi, Corydalis govaniana, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Gentiana algida, Hippophae rhamnoides, Inula racemosa, Jurinea dolomiaea, Meconopsis aculeata, Picrorhiza kurroa, Rhododendron anthopogon, Rheum webbianum, Rheum spiciforme, Saussurea bracteata, Saussurea lappa, and Vincetaxicum caneces. Allium przewalskianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, and Juniperus indica (Shukpa) were found to be commonly used by the Ladakhi people as a source of income at the local level (Leh market). Similarly, it was found that plants such as Allium przewalskianum, Amaranthus spinosus, Allium humile, Plantago depressa, and Urtica hyperborea were mostly used as food, and Hippophae rhamnoides was used to make juice in the study area. Plants, in addition to playing a role in treating various ailments [85,86,87], also deliver tangible economic benefits to indigenous communities, as in other regions [88]. The sustainable utilization and management of wild resources can act as a strategy to boost livelihood generation and food security and aid in poverty alleviation. Khan et al. [89], while carrying out a study on the indigenous communities of Ladakh, reported that 14.05 percent of the households surveyed were involved in medicinal plant collection, while only 8.11 percent were involved in marketing. The medicinal plants generated a total income of 274,034.40 annum−1 at 1481.27 household−1 annum−1 and 514.09 man-days annum−1 in the sampled population, with an average employment opportunity of 0.35 man-days household−1 annum−1. In terms of subsistence and income generation, medicinal plants play an important role in aboriginal people’s livelihood support.

4. Conclusions

The ethnobotanical results of this study clearly demonstrate that the traditional knowledge of medicinal plants is mainly the asset of elders. A total of 105 plant species belonging to 82 genera and 39 families were documented. The results indicated that the most prominent family is Asteraceae. The plant part most used are leaves. Medicinal uses are the most prevalent, with 70% of use reports, followed by fodder and fuel wood. Delphinium brunonianum, Waldheimia tomentosa, and Juniperus indica play a significant role in the cultural and religious ritual aspects. The local people collect most plants (65%) for self-consumption, while the rest (35%) are sold in markets as a source of income. The comparative analysis with previously published works showed similarities with our data. The results clearly indicate a real risk of progressive loss of traditional knowledge. In this study, some plants were reported for the first time for their ethnomedicinal use. These should be assessed for phytochemical composition and pharmacological activities. Further research on conservation strategies needs to be conducted.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, S.M.H. and U.Y.; methodology, S.M.H.; software, E.S.C.; validation R.W.B., A.M.A. and S.M.H.; formal analysis, S.M.H. and E.S.C.; investigation, S.M.H. and M.H.; resources, S.M.H.; data curation, S.M.H. and M.H.; writing, S.M.H., U.Y. and M.H.; original draft preparation, R.W.B., A.M.A. and I.U.R.; review and editing, R.W.B., A.M.A. and I.U.R.; visualization, S.M.H.; supervision, R.W.B., A.M.A. and I.U.R.; review and editing, A.H., E.F.A., M.A.A., A.A.A., M.A., S.U.R. and F.I. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project (No. RSP-2021/134), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Acknowledgments

Thanks are due to the local people of Ladakh for sharing the ethnobotanical information and cooperating during the surveys and interviews. The authors are grateful to all those who directly or indirectly helped them during the study. The authors would like to extend their sincere appreciation to the Researchers Supporting Project (No. RSP-2021/134), King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Figure 1. Map of the study area showing the sampling sites (n = 54) in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India. A global positioning system (GPS Garmin map76cs) was used to record the altitude as well as geo-coordinates of the sampled sites.
Figure 1. Map of the study area showing the sampling sites (n = 54) in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India. A global positioning system (GPS Garmin map76cs) was used to record the altitude as well as geo-coordinates of the sampled sites.
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Figure 2. Plant species distribution (105 species) according to plant usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 2. Plant species distribution (105 species) according to plant usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Figure 3. (a) Percentage of different ethnobotanical usages; (b) percentage of different plant parts used in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 3. (a) Percentage of different ethnobotanical usages; (b) percentage of different plant parts used in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Figure 4. Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of different part(s) usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 4. Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of different part(s) usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Figure 5. Venn diagram showing the overlap of ethnobotanical usage of plants in different ethnic groups in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 5. Venn diagram showing the overlap of ethnobotanical usage of plants in different ethnic groups in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Figure 6. Cluster diagram of the different provisioning services based on plant usage patterns in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 6. Cluster diagram of the different provisioning services based on plant usage patterns in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Figure 7. Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of different provisioning services in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Figure 7. Principal component analysis (PCA) biplot of different provisioning services in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
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Table 1. Demographic details of respondents interviewed in the present study.
Table 1. Demographic details of respondents interviewed in the present study.
Professional Groups InterviewedProfessional GroupNumber
Farmers82
Housewives52
Herders24
Govt. employees23
Amchis21
Daily wage laborers21
Shopkeepers13
Hunters16
Hotel owners15
Museum owners2
GenderMale208
Female61
Ethnic groupBalti91
Beda63
Brokpa115
Age group25–4533
46–65128
65–88106
Education qualificationWithout formal education174
5th pass37
8th pass21
10th pass15
12th pass14
Graduate and above8
Table 2. List of plant species with their ethnomedicinal usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Table 2. List of plant species with their ethnomedicinal usage in the Ladakh trans-Himalayan region, India.
Botanical Name
Abbreviation
Family
Voucher No.
Local Name
English Name
Life FormParts UsedPreparation and ApplicationDiseases CuredOther Economic ApplicationsEthnic Groups
BaltiBrokpaBeda
Amaranthus spinosus L.
(Ama-spi)
Amaranthaceae
SMH-162
Rgya-sho/
Green amaranth
HerbLeaves
Young twigs
Leaves are ground and paste is used topically.
Young twigs are boiled in water and decoction is taken orally.
Leaves are used for wound healing and bone fractures.
Young twigs are used to treat pulmonary diseases.
Leaves are used as food.YYY
Allium humile Kunth.
(All-hum)
Amaryllidaceae
SMH-164
Sko-tse/Kue
Bulb onion
HerbBulbs
Leaves
Decoction is made from the bulb which is used orally.
Fresh leaves are used.
Increases sexual vitality, gynecological disorders, insomnia, appetite, indigestion, and elephantiasis.Raw bulb is used along with food.
Leaves are cooked and used as vegetables.
YYY
Allium przewalskianum
Regel.
(All-prz)
Amaryllidaceae
SMH-129
Hdzim-nag-gam-ri-sGog,
Rug pa sa,
Lu i ljang pa/
Wild onion
HerbBulbsBulbs are ground and made into paste and used topically.Headache and wind diseases.Bulbs are cooked as food.YYN
Angelica glauca Edgew.
(Ang-gla)
Apiaceae
SMH-203
Lcha-ba/
Angelica
HerbRootsRoots are dried and ground to a powder and taken with lukewarm water and lime.Restores body strength and kidney heat, balances phlegm diseases, stomachic disorders, dropsy, anemia, and wind diseases.---------------YYN
Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) Sims ex C.B. Clarke.
(Ana-tri)
Asteraceae
SMH-127
Spra-rgod,
Spra g -yung,
Tayung/
Pearly everlasting
HerbLeavesLeaves are ground and made into peanut-like tablets, taken orally with water twice a day.Epidemic fever, stone, poison, and lymph gland swelling and bleeding.---------------YYY
Arctium lappa L.
(Arc-lap)
Asteraceae
SMH-185
Byi-bzung/
Greater burdock
HerbRoots
Seeds
Leaves
Decoction is made from roots and taken orally.
Seeds and leaves are ground to a fine powder, which is taken with water for a week.
Leaves are ground to a fine powder and taken orally with water.
Roots are believed to have anticancer potential and used against uterus tumors and urinary bladder cysts.
Seeds are used to cure burning urination.
Leaves are used for nerve disorders and unripe epidemic fever.
---------------NYN
Artemisia absinthium L.
(Art-abs)
Asteraceae
SMH-125
Bur-tse,
Khan dkar,
Dpa bo nyid/
Wormwood
HerbLeavesTea is obtained by boiling the dry and fresh leaves for more than half an hour and taken orally.Analgesic during labor pain, leukemia, and sclerosis.---------------YYN
Artemisia dracunculus L.
(Art-dra)
Asteraceae
SMH-131
Tse-phat,
tshar-bong/
Tarragon
HerbLeavesGround fresh leaves are made into small tablets and taken orally.Digestive disorders, toothache, pharyngitis, pulmonary diseases, and swelling due to hot disorders.---------------YYN
Aster flaccidus Bunge.
(Ast-fla)
Asteraceae
SMH-103
Me-tok-lug-mig,
Nia-Mentok/
Alpine aster
HerbFlowers
Leaves
Decoction is made from dry and fresh flowers, taken orally.
Paste is made from leaves and applied topically.
Flowers are used against poisoning, epidemic fever, infectious cold and cough, spasms of tendons and ligaments.
Leaves are used to treat drying pus and blood of wounds, and blisters.
Flowers are used as ornaments.YYN
Acantholimon lycopodioides
(Girard) Boiss.
(Aca-lyc)
Plumbaginaceae
SMH-128
Long-zay/
Prickly thrift
HerbLeavesDried and fresh leaves are boiled in water to make decoction, which is taken orally twice a day.Cardiac disorders.Litter in the form of dry leaves serves as fuel.YYY
Aconogonum tortuosum
(D. Don) H. Hara.
(Aco-tor)
Polygonaceae
SMH-102
Rnyalo,
Chu rtsi,
Skyu ru mu ru/
Twisted Knotweed
HerbRootsRoots are boiled in water and then taken orally after more than two hours.Black motion, dysentery, diarrhea, lumbar pain due to delivery.---------------YYN
Aconitum heterophyllum
Wall. ex Royle.
(Aco-het)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-195
Boona-karpo/
Indian atees
HerbRootsPaste is obtained via grinding the roots and applied topically.Useful in toothache and headache.---------------YYN
Aconitum richardsonianum Lauener.
(Aco-ric)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-187
Bong-nag-lo-pohra/
Monkshood
HerbRootsDried roots are ground to a fine powder and taken with lukewarm water orally.Common cold, pneumonia, laryngitis, croup, and asthma, inflammation, and high blood pressure.---------------YYN
Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf.
(Aco-vio)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-163
Boona-nagpo/
Violet monkshood
HerbRootsRoots are dried in shade and ground to a powder, taken with lukewarm water.Cold, cough, asthma, fever, and gastric problems.---------------YYN
Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC.
(Ane-riv)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-186
Srub-ka,
Sngo srub/
Riverside windflower
HerbRootsDried roots are ground to powder and taken with boiled water orally.Severe body pain, stomach heat, snake poison, tumors and drying serous fluids.---------------YYY
Aquilegia fragrans Benth.
(Aqu-fra)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-130
Doftakleja/
Fragrant columbine
HerbFlowersFresh flowers are used.---------------Flowers are used for ornamental purposes.YYY
Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnst.
(Arn-euc)
Boraginaceae
SMH-126
Bri-mok,
Demok/
Pink arnebia
HerbRootsRoots are shade-dried and decoction is made from ground roots, taken orally for a week.Blood purifier, cold, cough, lung, and pulmonary problems.Roots are used as coloring dishes and sweets.YYY
Arnebia guttata Bunge
(Arn-gut)
Boraginaceae
SMH-161
Deemok/
Arnebia
HerbRootsRoots are shade-dried and decoction is made from ground roots, which is taken orally for three consecutive days.Reduce cough and cold.---------------YYY
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb.
(Ber-cil)
Saxifragaceae
SMH-202
Pasanbheda/
Winter begonia
HerbWhole plantPlant is sun-dried, ground to a powder, and taken with water orally.Renal calculi.Roots are used for making herbal tea.YYY
Berberis dictyophylla Franch.
(Ber-dic)
Berberidaceae
SMH-124
Sker-pa/
Netleaf barberry
ShrubBarkTea is obtained by boiling the bark in water for more than 40 min, and taken orally.Diabetes, trachoma, and nephritis.---------------NYN
Berberis ulicina Hook.f. & Thomson.
(Ber-uli)
Berberidaceae
SMH-184
Khizer,
Kiraring/
Gorse Barberry
ShrubRoots
Bark
Roots are taken raw,
dried and ground to a powder, and used orally with milk.
Both the roots and the bark are used for body strength.---------------NYN
Carum carvi L.
(Car-car)
Apiaceae
SMH-104
Kos-nyod,
Ajaji,
Nilisi shi/
Caraway
HerbSeedsSeeds are dried and ground to a fine powder; also used in natural form.---------------Seeds are used to add flavor to local dishes.YYN
Cortia depressa (D. Don) C. Norman.
(Cor-dep)
Apiaceae
SMH-158
Bam-po-mo-rig/
Iranian knapweed
HerbBulbs
Leaves
Bulbs are made into paste and applied topically.
Decoction is made from the leaves and taken orally.
Bulbs reduce swelling in limbs.
Leaves are used for muscular spasms.
---------------YYN
Carthamus lanatus L.
(Car-lan)
Asteraceae
SMH-123
Gur-gum/
Safflower
HerbFlowersDried flowers are ground to a powder and taken orally with lukewarm water.Liver disorders, hepatitis, anemia, fever, purify blood, and bleeding.---------------YYY
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav.
(Cos-bip)
Asteraceae
SMH-121
Pun-da-Re-ka,
Krang tha ri/
Garden cosmos
HerbRootsRoots are dried and ground, then mixed with water, taken orally.Stops bleeding and blood fever.---------------YYN
Cremanthodium ellisii (Hook.f.) Kitam.
(Cre-ell)
Asteraceae
SMH-188
Ming-chan-nagpo/
Himalayan mini-Sunflower
HerbRoots
Leaves
Flowers
Paste is made from the roots and applied topically.
Decoction is made from the leaves and used orally.
Flowers are hand-rubbed.
Roots are used against inflammation of any body part.
Flowers are used to treat larynx disorders.
Flowers are used to treat diseases caused by evil spirits.
---------------YYN
Codonopsis ovata Benth.
(Cod-ova)
Campanulaceae
SMH-181
Klup-dud-rdo-rje/
Kashmir bonnet bellflower
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Poultice is made from leaves and used topically.
Flowers are dried and ground to a powder, mixed with water and made into paste, and applied topically.
Leaves are used against arthritis, rheumatism, and elephantiasis.
Flowers are used to treat leprosy, nerve disorders, stiffening of ligaments and tendons, planetary diseases, and diseases caused by evil spirits.
---------------YYN
Capparis spinosa L.
(Cap-spi)
Capparaceae
SMH-160
Kabra/
Flinders rose
HerbFlowers
Fruits
Flowers are dried and ground to a powder.---------------Flowers are used as flavoring agent.
Fruits are used as food.
YYN
Caragana brevifolia Kom.
(Car-bre)
Fabaceae
SMH-132
Brama/
Caragana
ShrubRoots
Fruits
Paste is made from the roots and applied topically.
Fruits are used raw.
Roots are used against muscle and nerve inflammation.Fruits are used as food.YYN
Caragana tibetica Kom.
(Car-tib)
Fabaceae
SMH-183
Mdzo-mo-shing/
-----------
ShrubRootsDecoction is obtained from the roots and taken orally.Blood disorders, skin diseases, heart disorders, and eye diseases.---------------YYN
Caragana versicolor Benth.
(Car-ver)
Fabaceae
SMH-159
Tama/
---------
ShrubWhole plant------------------------------Litter and the dried parts are used as fuel wood.
Leaves are used as fodder.
YYY
Chesneya cuneata (Benth.) Ali.
(Che-cun)
Fabaceae
SMH-182
Byangbu,
Dama/
Wedge-leaf chesneya
HerbRoots
Fruits (beans)
Roots are ground and mixed with lime and water to form tablets, used orally twice a day for a week.
Fruits (beans) are cooked.
Roots are used against skin infections.The beans are eaten as vegetables.YYN
Cicer microphyllum Benth.
(Cic-mic)
Fabaceae
SMH-196
Sari/
Himalayan chickpea
HerbWhole plantPlant is dried. Decoction obtained is taken orally.Exhilarate and
purify the blood.
Whole plant is used as feed and fodder.
Seeds are used as food (raw or cooked).
YYY
Corydalis govaniana Wall.
(Cor-gov)
Papaveraceae
SMH-134
Stong-zil/
----------
HerbRoots
Leaves
Small maize-like pellets are made from the roots by grinding and mixing water.
Decoction is made from the leaves and taken orally.
Roots are used as antipyretic and diuretic.
Leaves are used against gastric pain, muscular pain, contagious fever, eye diseases, and swellings.
---------------NYN
Clematis montana Buch. -Ham. ex DC.
(Cle-mon)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-133
Dbye-mong-karpo/
Himalayan clematis
HerbStem
Flowers
Stem and flowers are dried in the sun and ground to a powder, which is used with water in the morning.Aerial parts (stem and flowers) are used to treat diabetes.---------------NYN
Clematis tibetana Kuntze.
(Cle-tib)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-122
Dbi-mong,
Sbi-cho/
Chinese clematis
HerbFlowers
Stem
Decoction used orally and paste used topically are made from both stem and flowers.Flowers are used in wind- or cold-related problems, tumors, wounds, and arthritis.
Stem is used against pulmonary diseases, digestive heat, burns, and lack of appetite.
---------------NYN
Datura stramonium L.
(Dat-str)
Solanaceae
SMH-205
Esman/
Thorn apple, jimsonweed
HerbSeedsSeeds are dried and ground to a powder and taken orally with water.
Dried seeds are burned to produce smoke.
Seeds are used against asthma and diarrhea, and as anti-inflammatory medicine. Smoke is used to exorcise evil spirits.---------------YNN
Debregeasia edulis (Siebold & Zucc.) Wedd.
(Deb-edu)
Urticaceae
SMH-197
Ga—dur/
----------
ShrubFruitsFresh and dried fruits are used.---------------Fruits are used as food.NYY
Delphinium brunonianum
Royle.
(Del-bru)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-105
Bya-rgod-spos/
Musk larkspur
HerbStem
Leaves
Paste is made from the leaves and used topically.
Decoction is obtained from the leaves and taken orally.
Stem is used to treat skin diseases.
Leaves are used against evil spirits, poisoning, epidemic fever, itching, cold, cough, and snakebite.
---------------NYY
Delphinium cashmerianum
Royle.
(Del-cas)
Ranunculaceae
SMH-180
Ba-ru-ra,
Ladar/
Kashmir larkspur
HerbLeavesFresh leaves are used as such.Insecticide.---------------NYY
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó.
(Dac-hat)
Orchidaceae
SMH-201
Ambo-lakpa/
Himalayan marsh orchid
HerbRootsRoots are made into decoction and used orally.Energy boosters; improve health; recommended for weak people.---------------YYN
Dracocephalum heterophyllum
Benth.
(Dra-het)
Lamiaceae
SMH-179
Jib-rtse-Karpo,
Jib pa dkar thog,x
Mdzo mo nu nu/
White dragonhead
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Raw leaves are chewed.
Boiled in hot water to get vapors.
Leaves are used against toothache and eye diseases.
Flowers are used to treat irritation, burning sensation, and pain.
---------------NYN
Dracocephalum tanguticum
Maxim.
(Dra-tan)
Lamiaceae
SMH-200
Pri-yang-ku,
Klum o gur gum,
Btsun mo gur gum/
----------
HerbLeavesLeaves are boiled in water and eaten.Hepatitis, gastritis, dizziness, arthritis, and stomach ulcer.---------------NYN
Doronicum falconeri C.B. Clarke ex Hook.f.
(Dor-fal)
Asteraceae
SMH-120
Mentok-serpo/
False leopard’s bane
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Paste is made from both leaves and flowers.Leaves are used to treat diphtheria and viral and bacterial diseases.
Flowers are used to treat swelling and pain due to hypertension.
---------------NYN
Echinops cornigerus DC.
(Ech-cor)
Asteraceae
SMH-135
Aczema/
Blue globe thistle
HerbRoots
Leave
Roots are powdered and mixed with curd and used topically.
Leaves are dried and ground to form small tablets and taken with water orally.
Roots are used to treat yellowish coloration of eyes due to jaundice.
Leaves are used to treat septic wounds.
---------------YYN
Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf.
(Eph-ger)
Ephedraceae
SMH-119
Tsepat, Chhepat/
Gerard jointfir
HerbLeaves
Stem
Flowers
Leaves are made into paste and applied topically.
Young stem twigs are cut into the size of a toothbrush.
Flowers are made into decoction, used orally.
Leaves are used to reduce fever.
Flowers are used to treat hepatic diseases, rheumatism, and bronchial asthma.
Stem is an alternative to toothbrush and paste.
Dried stem is also used as fuel.
NYN
Epilobium latifolium L.
(Epi-lat)
Onagraceae
SMH-106
Byar-pan-chu-tse/
Dwarf fireweed
HerbFlowers
Leaves
Flowers are made into paste and used topically.
Decoction is made from the leaves and used orally.
Flowers are used against dropsy.
Leaves are used against urine obstruction, severe pain, fever due to elephantiasis, arthritis, and pimples.
---------------YYN
Fritillaria verticillata Willd.
(Fri-ver)
Liliaceae
SMH-189
Shri khanta/
---------
HerbBulbsBulbs are ground and mixed with honey and taken orally.Antidote, antitussive, astringent, expectorant, and purgative.---------------YYY
Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke.
(Fer-jae)
Apiaceae
SMH-178
Wild Hing,
Tru-nag/
Wild Asafoetida
HerbRootsRoots are dried and ground to a powder, mixed with spring water to form a paste, and used topically.Septic wounds and cuts.---------------YYY
Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem.
(Gen-chi)
Gentianaceae
SMH-118
Tik-ta/
Indian gentian
HerbWhole plantDecoction is made and taken orally.Febrifuge, carminative, expectorant, laxative, stomachic, anthelmintic, and anti-diarrheal.---------------NYN
Gentiana urnula Harry Sm.
(Gen-urn)
Gentianaceae
SMH-177
Ganga-chung,
Rgyal mtshan ganga chung,
Gangs las skyes/
Starfish succulent
HerbWhole plantDecoction is made and taken orally.Prominent laxative, anthelmintic, and anti-diarrheal.---------------NYN
Gentiana algida Pall.
(Gen-alg)
Gentianaceae
SMH-157
Tiktas,
Spang-gyan-karpo,
Ta pa ni/
whitish gentian
HerbFlowersFlowers are dried, ground, mixed with lime and honey, and taken orally.To reduce the inflammation of the pharynx, bronchitis, cough, hoarseness of throat, excess sputum, and toxic and epidemic fevers.---------------NYN
Herminium monorchis (L.) R.Br.
(Her-mon)
Orchidaceae
SMH-198
Bye-lche-lag-pa/
Musk orchid
HerbRootsFresh and dry roots are half ground and boiled in water, and taken orally.Rejuvenates health, increases sperm count; vital essence; acts as aphrodisiac and improves kidney heat.---------------NYN
Hippophae rhamnoides
L.
(Hip-rha)
Elaeagnaceae
SMH-156
Gla ba tsher ma,
Gle tsher,
Star ru/
Sea-buckthorn
HerbWhole plantPlant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally.Anti-aging, anti-cold, memory sharpener, and energy booster.Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder.YYY
Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC.
(Her-can)
Apiaceae
SMH-136
Spru-nag/
Cartwheel flower
HerbRootsRoots are sun-dried and kept for 1 month, then ground to a powder and mixed with curd to form a paste, applied topically.Sunburn, skin diseases, and external tumors.---------------YYY
Iris lactea Pall.
(Iri-lac)
Iridaceae
SMH-117
Dres-ma,
Mo dres,
Modrey/
Milky iris
HerbWhole plantPlant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally.Appetite, stomach cramps, small and large intestinal cramps, and food-poisoning diseases.---------------YYN
Ixeris gracilis
(DC.) Stebbins.
(Ixe-gra)
Asteraceae
SMH-190
Rtga-mkhris/
---------
HerbWhole plantPlant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally.Antihyperglycemic activity, and dysentery.---------------NYN
Inula racemosa Hook.f.
(Inu-rac)
Asteraceae
SMH-176
Ma-nu,
Pushkarmool/
Indian elecampane
HerbRootsDried roots are powdered, mixed with cow milk, and taken orally.Bronchial asthma, anthelmintic in children, antiseptic, expectorant, and diuretic.---------------YYN
Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss.
(Jur-dol)
Asteraceae
SMH-116
Bya-rog-nyungs-ma/
Dhoop
HerbLeaves
Bark
Paste is made from dry leaves and bark and applied topically.Leaves are used against rheumatic pains.
Bark is used as antiseptic.
---------------NYN
Juniperus indica Bertol.
(Jun-ind)
Cupressaceae
SMH-137
Shukpa,
Spa ma,
Spa ma bdud rtsi zil pa can/
Black juniper
ShrubLeaves
Bark
Raw leaves are used.
Fresh and dried barks are smelled.
Bark is used in inflammation and menstrual problems.Leaves are used as incense by Buddhists, and hence is attributed religious significance.
Bark is used in dealing with nightmares in Muslims.
YYY
Juniperus recurva Buch. -Ham. ex D.Don.
(Jun-rec)
Cupressaceae
SMH-155
Shug-pa-tser-chan/
Drooping juniper
ShrubLeaves
Fruits
Powdered leaves are used with stream water and taken orally.
Fruits are taken raw.
Leaves are used to treat kidney problems and muscular spasms.
Fruit improves health.
---------------YYY
Lactuca dissecta
D. Don.
(Lac-dis)
Asteraceae
SMH-107
Khala/
Split-leaf lettuce
HerbLeaves
Stem
Dried leaves and stem are ground, mixed with water to form paste, and applied topically.Infections of female external genital organs.---------------NYY
Lonicera spinosa (Decne.) Jacq. ex Walp.
(Lon-spi)
Caprifoliaceae
SMH-138
Phang-ma/
Spiny Honeysuckle
HerbFlowersFlowers are kept in an air-tight jar for more than 40 days for fermentation and then taken orally.Asthma, headache, and gynecological disorders.---------------YYY
Leonurus japonicus Houtt.
Lamiaceae
(Leo-jap)
SMH-165
Zin-tig/
Oriental motherwort
HerbLeaves
Stem
Leaves are shade-dried and powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally.
Decoction is made from the stem and taken orally.
Leaves regulate menstrual disturbance, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, blood stasis, and postpartum hemorrhage.
Stem is used as diuretic.
---------------NYN
Lagotis cashmeriana Rupr.
(Lag-cas)
Plantaginaceae
SMH-175
Hong-len/
Kashmir lagotis
HerbRootsRoots are shade-dried and boiled in water and taken orally.Reduce inflammation, vital fever, liver fever, lungs fever, intestinal fever, poisonous, painful cramps, muscular spasms, and child dysentery.---------------NYN
Myricaria squamosa Desv.
(Myr-squ)
Tamaricaceae
SMH-174
Om-bu/
Scaly false tamarisk
ShrubStemDried stem is ground and decoction is made; taken orally.Food poisoning.---------------YYN
Myricaria elegans Royle.
(Myr-ele)
Tamaricaceae
SMH-115
Hom-bu/
Elegant false tamarisk
ShrubStemStem is ground and boiled in water for 20 min and then eaten.Fever of lungs, diarrhea, arthritis, uterine bleeding, stomach pain, and headache.---------------YYN
Meconopsis aculeata Royle.
(Mec-acu)
Papaveraceae
SMH-154
Ud-pal-sngon-po/
Poppy
HerbLeavesFresh leaves are powdered, mixed with water to make a paste, and applied topically.Headache.---------------NYY
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC.
(Mor-lon)
Caprifoliaceae
SMH-191
Spyang-tsher,
Bya tra pad,
Chang tsher karpo/
Himalayan whorl flower
HerbRoots
Young—twigs
Decoction is made from the roots and young twigs and taken orally.Roots are used against phlegm disease, cancer, and swelling.
Young twigs are used for indigestion.
---------------YYN
Nepeta floccosa
Benth.
(Nep-flo)
Lamiaceae
SMH-153
Shangukuram/
Woolly catmint
HerbLeavesDried leaves are ground to a powder.---------------Leaves add flavor in local dishes.YYY
Oxytropis microphylla (Pall.) DC.
(Oxy-mic)
Fabaceae
SMH-139
Tag-sha nagpo,
Sngo stag sha,
Pa nig ho ra/
Small leaved locoweed
HerbWhole plantFresh plant is used.---------------The whole plant bears a strong fragrance and hence is kept in homes.YYN
Onosma hookeri
C.B. Clarke.
(Ono-hoo)
Boraginaceae
SMH-108
Bri-mog, xi hua dian zi cao/
----------
HerbRoots
Bark
Leaves
Decoction is made from the roots, bark, and leaves and used orally.Roots are used against asthma, cough, and fever.
Bark is used against gonorrhea and leprosy.
Leaves are used against phthisis.
---------------YYY
Picris hieracioides Sibth. & Sm.
(Pic-hie)
Asteraceae
SMH-152
Rgya-mkhur,
Aam dkar,
Gyakhur/
Hawkweed oxtongue
HerbWhole plantPlant is dried and powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally.Gastro-intestinal disorder, blood disorder, bile disorder, chronic fever, and contagious fever.---------------NYY
Pedicularis cheilanthifolia Schrenk.
(Ped-che)
Orobanchaceae
SMH-192
Lug-ru-smog-po, sui mi jue ye/
White Lousewort
HerbStemStem is dried and ground to a fine powder and taken with water orally.Stomach ache.---------------YYY
Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph.
(Ped-lon)
Orobanchaceae
SMH-166
Lug-ru-ser-po/
Long tube lousewort
HerbFlowersDecoction is obtained from dried flowers and used orally.Diuretic, liver, and gallbladder disorders, excessive seminal discharge, and edema.---------------YYY
Piper longum L.
(Pip-lon)
Piperaceae
SMH-173
Pi-pi-ling,
Byi ril ma,
Yul dbus/
Long pepper
HerbRoots
Fruits
Roots and fruits are dried and boiled in water for some time and then taken orally.Prevention and treatment of prostate cancer.---------------YYY
Plantago depressa Willd.
(Pla-dep)
Plantaginaceae
SMH-140
Tha-ram/
Blond psyllium
HerbLeaves
Stem
Flowers
Leaves are dried, powdered, and taken with lukewarm water orally.
Fresh stem is ground, made into a paste, and applied topically.
Decoction is obtained from the flowers and used orally.
Leaves are used against dysentery.
Stem is used against burn wounds.
Flowers are used against bleeding and inflammation.
---------------NYY
Polygonum aviculare L.
(Pol-avi)
Polygonaceae
SMH-151
Byi-na-sa/
Knotgrass
HerbWhole plantDecoction is obtained by grinding and boiling in water for more than 3 h and taken orally.Obstruction of urine, burning sensation during urination, jaundice, and dermatological diseases with itching.---------------YYY
Potentilla anserina L.
(Pot-ans)
Rosaceae
SMH-144
Gro-lo sa-hdzin,
Gro ma,
Dolo sazin/
Silverweed
HerbLeavesLeaves are dried in homes, powdered, and used orally with water.Diarrhea/dysentery, and health tonic.---------------YYY
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle.
(Pic-kur)
Scrophulariaceae
SMH-199
Hong-len, Kutki/
Katuk
HerbRoots
Flowers
Roots are dried in shade, powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally. Dried flowers are hand-rubbed into lukewarm water and used orally.Roots are used to treat asthmatic disorders and fever.
Flowers are used in blood purification.
---------------NYN
Physochlaina praealta (Decne.) Miers.
(Phy-pra)
Solanaceae
SMH-109
Lantang,
Thang-phron-nagpo/
Praealtus,-a,-um
HerbSeeds
Leaves
Seeds are ground to a fine powder and used orally with lukewarm water.
Fresh leaves are ground to obtain the juice, which is used as eye drops.
Seeds are used as vermifuge.
Leaves are used against eye diseases.
---------------YYN
Rhodiola imbricata Edgew.
(Rho-imb)
Crassulaceae
SMH-143
Shro lo,
Cho-ngo-ngo/
Greek rhodon
HerbRootsRoots are boiled in water, mixed with lime, and taken orally.Lung problems, cold, cough, fever, loss of energy, and pulmonary complaints.---------------YYY
Rhodiola sacra
Prain ex Raym. Hamet S.H. Fu.
(Rho-sac)
Crassulaceae
SMH-193
Srolo-marpo/
Arctic root
HerbRoots
Leaves
Roots are dried and ground and taken orally with water.
Fresh young leaves are used.
Roots are used as tonic and to restore memory.
Leaves are cooked as vegetables.YYY
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don.
(Rho-ant)
Ericaceae
SMH-111
Ba-lu/da-lis/
Brass
ShrubLeaves
Flowers
Leaves and flowers are dried, hand-rubbed, kept in hot water for some time, and taken orally.Leaves are used to treat high-altitude diseases, chest pain, weakness, obstruction of vocal cords, and chronic bronchitis.
Flowers are used against stiffness of limbs, and phlegm disorders.
---------------NYY
Ribes orientale Desf.
(Rib-ori)
Grossulariaceae
SMH-141
Askuta,
Se-rgod/
Oriental gooseberry
ShrubFruitsRaw fruits are used.Swollen limbs, food poisoning, hepatitis, fever of the gallbladder, and epidemic fever.---------------NYN
Rheum webbianum Royle.
(Rhe-web)
Polygonaceae
SMH-150
Chu-rtsa/
Indian rhubarb
HerbRoot
Stem
Leaves
Decoction is made from fresh roots and taken orally.
Fresh stem is made into a paste and applied topically.
Raw leaves are taken orally.
Roots are used against indigestion and abdominal diseases.
Stem is used to treat boils and wounds.
Leaves are used against gastritis and as laxative and astringent.
---------------YYN
Ranunculus adoxifolius
(Ran-ado)
Hand. -Mazz.
Ranunculaceae
SMH-110
Ga-tsah-am-lche-tsah/
Buttercup
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Decoction is made from leaves and taken orally.
Fresh flowers are made into a paste, applied topically.
Leaves are used to normalize the digestive heat.
Flowers are used against old wounds and dropsy.
---------------NYY
Rosa sericea
Wall. ex Lindl.
(Ros-ser)
Rosaceae
SMH-149
Shayh/
Silky rose
ShrubWhole plantLitter and dried plant/ fresh plant is used.---------------Whole plant is an ornamental hedge.
Plant is also used as fuel and fodder.
YYY
Rosa webbiana
Wall. ex Royle.
(Ros- web)
Rosaceae
SMH-204
Seba,
Sia
Webb’s rose
ShrubFlowersFresh flowers are used.---------------Flowers are used as an ornaments.YYY
Rubia cordifolia L.
(Rub-cor)
Rubiaceae
SMH-168
Btsod/
Common madder
HerbStemDecoction taken orally is made from dried stem.Blood disorders, blood fever, spreading fever, lung fever, kidney fever, and intestine fever.---------------NYY
Rheum spiciforme Royle.
(Rhe-spi)
Polygonaceae
SMH-167
Lachhu/
Spiked rhubarb
HerbRootsRoots are boiled in water and then used orally.Rheumatism.---------------YYY
Salix pycnostachya Andersson.
(Sal-pyc)
Salicaceae
SMH-206
Malchang/
Willow
TreeBranches
Stem
Leaves
Fresh branches are used.
Dried stem is used.
Fresh leaves are used.
---------------Muslims use branches as pillows for corpses in the graves.
Stem is used as fuel wood.
Leaves are used as fodder.
YNN
Stipa orientalis
Trin. ex Ledeb.
(Sti-ori)
Poaceae
Malchang
Pilli,
Makpen/
Feather grass
HerbWhole plantBoth fresh and dried plants are used.---------------Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder.YYN
Stachys tibetica
Vatke.
(Sta-tib)
Lamiaceae
SMH-145
Yakzas/
Tibetan woundwort
HerbWhole plantDried plant is ground to a fine powder, mixed with curd, and taken orally.Mental disorders and phobias.
Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder.YYN
Sedum ewersii
Ledeb.
(Sed-ewe)
Crassulaceae
SMH-169
Srolo-karpo/
Pink sedum
HerbWhole plantFresh and dried plants are used.Plant is given in bulk to the cattle to increase milk production.---------------YYY
Saussurea bracteata Decne.
(Sau-bra)
Asteraceae
SMH-148
Spang-rtsa/
Narrow-leaved saw-wort
HerbFlowersPaste is made from flowers and applied topically.Boils.Flowers are used as ornaments.YYY
Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.Bip.
(Sau-lap)
Asteraceae
SMH-112
Kuth,
Ru-ta/
Kust
HerbRootsRoots are powdered and taken with water orally.Asthma and fever.---------------YYY
Saussurea roylei C.B. Clarke.
(Sau-roy)
Asteraceae
SMH-142
Kon-pa-gab-skyes-che-ba/
Royle’s saw-wort
HerbLeavesFresh flowers are made into a decoction and taken orally.Chronic and fresh wounds, bleeding due to nerve disorders.---------------YYY
Tylophora fasciculata Buch. -Ham. ex Wight.
(Tyl-fas)
Apocynaceae
SMH-194
Go-snyod/
Country ipikakyun
HerbFruitsRaw fruits are eaten.Dysentery and hot disorder of gallbladder.---------------NYN
Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam.
(Tan-dol)
Asteraceae
SMH-113
Mkhan-chung-ser-mgo/
Garden tansy
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Fresh leaves are ground, and a little juice is obtained and taken orally.
Flowers are boiled in water for 5 min and then taken orally with water.
Leaves are used against nose bleeding, swelling, and inflammation of the limbs, cancers, wounds, and lung disorders.
Flowers are used against renal diseases.
---------------NYY
Tanacetum gracile Hook.f. & Thomson.
(Tan-gra)
Asteraceae
SMH-146
Khamchu/
Daisy
HerbLeaves
Flowers
Leaves and flowers are shade-dried.
Flowers are shade-dried and covered with a fine cotton cloth.
---------------Leaves are a good source of oil.
Flowers are fragrant and a good source of oil.
NYY
Thlaspi arvense L.
(Thl-arv)
Brassicaceae
SMH-170
Bre-ga/
Field pennycress
HerbLeavesLeaves are dried and powdered; decoction is made and taken orally.Pulmonary diseases, kidney diseases, and white discharges.---------------YYY
Trigonella emodi Benth.
(Tri-emo)
Fabaceae
SMH-147
Hbu-su-hang/
Himalayan fenugreek
HerbSeeds
Leaves
Seeds are dried, ground, mixed with turmeric to form a paste, and applied topically.
Leaves are dried and powdered; decoction is made and taken orally.
Seeds are used against sores and bone fractures.
Leaves are used to treat kidney disorders.
---------------YYN
Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd.
(Urt-hyp)
Urticaceae
SMH-171
Rza-sot/
Northern nettle
HerbLeavesLeaves are dried, powdered, and taken orally with lukewarm water.Promotes digestive and physical heat, and wind diseases associated with chronic fever.Leaves are used as food (soup).NYY
Waldheimia tomentosa (Decne.) Regel.
(Wal-tom)
Asteraceae
SMH-114
Palu/
Yellow berried nightshade
HerbWhole plantDecoction is made and used orally. Fresh and dried plants are used.Acidity, headache, and arthritis.Whole plant is considered holy in the Buddhist faith and used for making incense (dhoop), which is used in houses and religious places.
Plant is also used in the bathing ceremony of deceased persons and newborn babies.
YYY
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MDPI and ACS Style

Haq, S.M.; Yaqoob, U.; Calixto, E.S.; Rahman, I.U.; Hashem, A.; Abd_Allah, E.F.; Alakeel, M.A.; Alqarawi, A.A.; Abdalla, M.; Hassan, M.; et al. Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region. Biology 2021, 10, 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827

AMA Style

Haq SM, Yaqoob U, Calixto ES, Rahman IU, Hashem A, Abd_Allah EF, Alakeel MA, Alqarawi AA, Abdalla M, Hassan M, et al. Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region. Biology. 2021; 10(9):827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827

Chicago/Turabian Style

Haq, Shiekh Marifatul, Umer Yaqoob, Eduardo Soares Calixto, Inayat Ur Rahman, Abeer Hashem, Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah, Maha Abdullah Alakeel, Abdulaziz A. Alqarawi, Mohnad Abdalla, Musheerul Hassan, and et al. 2021. "Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region" Biology 10, no. 9: 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827

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