Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Area
2.2. Data Collection
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Demographic Details of Respondents and Vegetation Composition
3.2. Preference Analysis
3.3. Cross-Cultural and Religious Analysis
3.4. Classification of Ethnobotanical Usage
3.5. Important Medicinal Plant Species, Their Local Uses, and Trade Status
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Professional Groups Interviewed | Professional Group | Number |
---|---|---|
Farmers | 82 | |
Housewives | 52 | |
Herders | 24 | |
Govt. employees | 23 | |
Amchis | 21 | |
Daily wage laborers | 21 | |
Shopkeepers | 13 | |
Hunters | 16 | |
Hotel owners | 15 | |
Museum owners | 2 | |
Gender | Male | 208 |
Female | 61 | |
Ethnic group | Balti | 91 |
Beda | 63 | |
Brokpa | 115 | |
Age group | 25–45 | 33 |
46–65 | 128 | |
65–88 | 106 | |
Education qualification | Without formal education | 174 |
5th pass | 37 | |
8th pass | 21 | |
10th pass | 15 | |
12th pass | 14 | |
Graduate and above | 8 |
Botanical Name Abbreviation Family Voucher No. | Local Name English Name | Life Form | Parts Used | Preparation and Application | Diseases Cured | Other Economic Applications | Ethnic Groups | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Balti | Brokpa | Beda | |||||||
Amaranthus spinosus L. (Ama-spi) Amaranthaceae SMH-162 | Rgya-sho/ Green amaranth | Herb | Leaves Young twigs | Leaves are ground and paste is used topically. Young twigs are boiled in water and decoction is taken orally. | Leaves are used for wound healing and bone fractures. Young twigs are used to treat pulmonary diseases. | Leaves are used as food. | Y | Y | Y |
Allium humile Kunth. (All-hum) Amaryllidaceae SMH-164 | Sko-tse/Kue Bulb onion | Herb | Bulbs Leaves | Decoction is made from the bulb which is used orally. Fresh leaves are used. | Increases sexual vitality, gynecological disorders, insomnia, appetite, indigestion, and elephantiasis. | Raw bulb is used along with food. Leaves are cooked and used as vegetables. | Y | Y | Y |
Allium przewalskianum Regel. (All-prz) Amaryllidaceae SMH-129 | Hdzim-nag-gam-ri-sGog, Rug pa sa, Lu i ljang pa/ Wild onion | Herb | Bulbs | Bulbs are ground and made into paste and used topically. | Headache and wind diseases. | Bulbs are cooked as food. | Y | Y | N |
Angelica glauca Edgew. (Ang-gla) Apiaceae SMH-203 | Lcha-ba/ Angelica | Herb | Roots | Roots are dried and ground to a powder and taken with lukewarm water and lime. | Restores body strength and kidney heat, balances phlegm diseases, stomachic disorders, dropsy, anemia, and wind diseases. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Anaphalis triplinervis (Sims) Sims ex C.B. Clarke. (Ana-tri) Asteraceae SMH-127 | Spra-rgod, Spra g -yung, Tayung/ Pearly everlasting | Herb | Leaves | Leaves are ground and made into peanut-like tablets, taken orally with water twice a day. | Epidemic fever, stone, poison, and lymph gland swelling and bleeding. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Arctium lappa L. (Arc-lap) Asteraceae SMH-185 | Byi-bzung/ Greater burdock | Herb | Roots Seeds Leaves | Decoction is made from roots and taken orally. Seeds and leaves are ground to a fine powder, which is taken with water for a week. Leaves are ground to a fine powder and taken orally with water. | Roots are believed to have anticancer potential and used against uterus tumors and urinary bladder cysts. Seeds are used to cure burning urination. Leaves are used for nerve disorders and unripe epidemic fever. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Artemisia absinthium L. (Art-abs) Asteraceae SMH-125 | Bur-tse, Khan dkar, Dpa bo nyid/ Wormwood | Herb | Leaves | Tea is obtained by boiling the dry and fresh leaves for more than half an hour and taken orally. | Analgesic during labor pain, leukemia, and sclerosis. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Artemisia dracunculus L. (Art-dra) Asteraceae SMH-131 | Tse-phat, tshar-bong/ Tarragon | Herb | Leaves | Ground fresh leaves are made into small tablets and taken orally. | Digestive disorders, toothache, pharyngitis, pulmonary diseases, and swelling due to hot disorders. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Aster flaccidus Bunge. (Ast-fla) Asteraceae SMH-103 | Me-tok-lug-mig, Nia-Mentok/ Alpine aster | Herb | Flowers Leaves | Decoction is made from dry and fresh flowers, taken orally. Paste is made from leaves and applied topically. | Flowers are used against poisoning, epidemic fever, infectious cold and cough, spasms of tendons and ligaments. Leaves are used to treat drying pus and blood of wounds, and blisters. | Flowers are used as ornaments. | Y | Y | N |
Acantholimon lycopodioides (Girard) Boiss. (Aca-lyc) Plumbaginaceae SMH-128 | Long-zay/ Prickly thrift | Herb | Leaves | Dried and fresh leaves are boiled in water to make decoction, which is taken orally twice a day. | Cardiac disorders. | Litter in the form of dry leaves serves as fuel. | Y | Y | Y |
Aconogonum tortuosum (D. Don) H. Hara. (Aco-tor) Polygonaceae SMH-102 | Rnyalo, Chu rtsi, Skyu ru mu ru/ Twisted Knotweed | Herb | Roots | Roots are boiled in water and then taken orally after more than two hours. | Black motion, dysentery, diarrhea, lumbar pain due to delivery. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall. ex Royle. (Aco-het) Ranunculaceae SMH-195 | Boona-karpo/ Indian atees | Herb | Roots | Paste is obtained via grinding the roots and applied topically. | Useful in toothache and headache. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Aconitum richardsonianum Lauener. (Aco-ric) Ranunculaceae SMH-187 | Bong-nag-lo-pohra/ Monkshood | Herb | Roots | Dried roots are ground to a fine powder and taken with lukewarm water orally. | Common cold, pneumonia, laryngitis, croup, and asthma, inflammation, and high blood pressure. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Aconitum violaceum Jacquem. ex Stapf. (Aco-vio) Ranunculaceae SMH-163 | Boona-nagpo/ Violet monkshood | Herb | Roots | Roots are dried in shade and ground to a powder, taken with lukewarm water. | Cold, cough, asthma, fever, and gastric problems. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Anemone rivularis Buch.-Ham. ex DC. (Ane-riv) Ranunculaceae SMH-186 | Srub-ka, Sngo srub/ Riverside windflower | Herb | Roots | Dried roots are ground to powder and taken with boiled water orally. | Severe body pain, stomach heat, snake poison, tumors and drying serous fluids. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Aquilegia fragrans Benth. (Aqu-fra) Ranunculaceae SMH-130 | Doftakleja/ Fragrant columbine | Herb | Flowers | Fresh flowers are used. | --------------- | Flowers are used for ornamental purposes. | Y | Y | Y |
Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M.Johnst. (Arn-euc) Boraginaceae SMH-126 | Bri-mok, Demok/ Pink arnebia | Herb | Roots | Roots are shade-dried and decoction is made from ground roots, taken orally for a week. | Blood purifier, cold, cough, lung, and pulmonary problems. | Roots are used as coloring dishes and sweets. | Y | Y | Y |
Arnebia guttata Bunge (Arn-gut) Boraginaceae SMH-161 | Deemok/ Arnebia | Herb | Roots | Roots are shade-dried and decoction is made from ground roots, which is taken orally for three consecutive days. | Reduce cough and cold. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Bergenia ciliata (Haw.) Sternb. (Ber-cil) Saxifragaceae SMH-202 | Pasanbheda/ Winter begonia | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is sun-dried, ground to a powder, and taken with water orally. | Renal calculi. | Roots are used for making herbal tea. | Y | Y | Y |
Berberis dictyophylla Franch. (Ber-dic) Berberidaceae SMH-124 | Sker-pa/ Netleaf barberry | Shrub | Bark | Tea is obtained by boiling the bark in water for more than 40 min, and taken orally. | Diabetes, trachoma, and nephritis. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Berberis ulicina Hook.f. & Thomson. (Ber-uli) Berberidaceae SMH-184 | Khizer, Kiraring/ Gorse Barberry | Shrub | Roots Bark | Roots are taken raw, dried and ground to a powder, and used orally with milk. | Both the roots and the bark are used for body strength. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Carum carvi L. (Car-car) Apiaceae SMH-104 | Kos-nyod, Ajaji, Nilisi shi/ Caraway | Herb | Seeds | Seeds are dried and ground to a fine powder; also used in natural form. | --------------- | Seeds are used to add flavor to local dishes. | Y | Y | N |
Cortia depressa (D. Don) C. Norman. (Cor-dep) Apiaceae SMH-158 | Bam-po-mo-rig/ Iranian knapweed | Herb | Bulbs Leaves | Bulbs are made into paste and applied topically. Decoction is made from the leaves and taken orally. | Bulbs reduce swelling in limbs. Leaves are used for muscular spasms. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Carthamus lanatus L. (Car-lan) Asteraceae SMH-123 | Gur-gum/ Safflower | Herb | Flowers | Dried flowers are ground to a powder and taken orally with lukewarm water. | Liver disorders, hepatitis, anemia, fever, purify blood, and bleeding. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Cosmos bipinnatus Cav. (Cos-bip) Asteraceae SMH-121 | Pun-da-Re-ka, Krang tha ri/ Garden cosmos | Herb | Roots | Roots are dried and ground, then mixed with water, taken orally. | Stops bleeding and blood fever. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Cremanthodium ellisii (Hook.f.) Kitam. (Cre-ell) Asteraceae SMH-188 | Ming-chan-nagpo/ Himalayan mini-Sunflower | Herb | Roots Leaves Flowers | Paste is made from the roots and applied topically. Decoction is made from the leaves and used orally. Flowers are hand-rubbed. | Roots are used against inflammation of any body part. Flowers are used to treat larynx disorders. Flowers are used to treat diseases caused by evil spirits. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Codonopsis ovata Benth. (Cod-ova) Campanulaceae SMH-181 | Klup-dud-rdo-rje/ Kashmir bonnet bellflower | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Poultice is made from leaves and used topically. Flowers are dried and ground to a powder, mixed with water and made into paste, and applied topically. | Leaves are used against arthritis, rheumatism, and elephantiasis. Flowers are used to treat leprosy, nerve disorders, stiffening of ligaments and tendons, planetary diseases, and diseases caused by evil spirits. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Capparis spinosa L. (Cap-spi) Capparaceae SMH-160 | Kabra/ Flinders rose | Herb | Flowers Fruits | Flowers are dried and ground to a powder. | --------------- | Flowers are used as flavoring agent. Fruits are used as food. | Y | Y | N |
Caragana brevifolia Kom. (Car-bre) Fabaceae SMH-132 | Brama/ Caragana | Shrub | Roots Fruits | Paste is made from the roots and applied topically. Fruits are used raw. | Roots are used against muscle and nerve inflammation. | Fruits are used as food. | Y | Y | N |
Caragana tibetica Kom. (Car-tib) Fabaceae SMH-183 | Mdzo-mo-shing/ ----------- | Shrub | Roots | Decoction is obtained from the roots and taken orally. | Blood disorders, skin diseases, heart disorders, and eye diseases. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Caragana versicolor Benth. (Car-ver) Fabaceae SMH-159 | Tama/ --------- | Shrub | Whole plant | --------------- | --------------- | Litter and the dried parts are used as fuel wood. Leaves are used as fodder. | Y | Y | Y |
Chesneya cuneata (Benth.) Ali. (Che-cun) Fabaceae SMH-182 | Byangbu, Dama/ Wedge-leaf chesneya | Herb | Roots Fruits (beans) | Roots are ground and mixed with lime and water to form tablets, used orally twice a day for a week. Fruits (beans) are cooked. | Roots are used against skin infections. | The beans are eaten as vegetables. | Y | Y | N |
Cicer microphyllum Benth. (Cic-mic) Fabaceae SMH-196 | Sari/ Himalayan chickpea | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is dried. Decoction obtained is taken orally. | Exhilarate and purify the blood. | Whole plant is used as feed and fodder. Seeds are used as food (raw or cooked). | Y | Y | Y |
Corydalis govaniana Wall. (Cor-gov) Papaveraceae SMH-134 | Stong-zil/ ---------- | Herb | Roots Leaves | Small maize-like pellets are made from the roots by grinding and mixing water. Decoction is made from the leaves and taken orally. | Roots are used as antipyretic and diuretic. Leaves are used against gastric pain, muscular pain, contagious fever, eye diseases, and swellings. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Clematis montana Buch. -Ham. ex DC. (Cle-mon) Ranunculaceae SMH-133 | Dbye-mong-karpo/ Himalayan clematis | Herb | Stem Flowers | Stem and flowers are dried in the sun and ground to a powder, which is used with water in the morning. | Aerial parts (stem and flowers) are used to treat diabetes. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Clematis tibetana Kuntze. (Cle-tib) Ranunculaceae SMH-122 | Dbi-mong, Sbi-cho/ Chinese clematis | Herb | Flowers Stem | Decoction used orally and paste used topically are made from both stem and flowers. | Flowers are used in wind- or cold-related problems, tumors, wounds, and arthritis. Stem is used against pulmonary diseases, digestive heat, burns, and lack of appetite. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Datura stramonium L. (Dat-str) Solanaceae SMH-205 | Esman/ Thorn apple, jimsonweed | Herb | Seeds | Seeds are dried and ground to a powder and taken orally with water. Dried seeds are burned to produce smoke. | Seeds are used against asthma and diarrhea, and as anti-inflammatory medicine. Smoke is used to exorcise evil spirits. | --------------- | Y | N | N |
Debregeasia edulis (Siebold & Zucc.) Wedd. (Deb-edu) Urticaceae SMH-197 | Ga—dur/ ---------- | Shrub | Fruits | Fresh and dried fruits are used. | --------------- | Fruits are used as food. | N | Y | Y |
Delphinium brunonianum Royle. (Del-bru) Ranunculaceae SMH-105 | Bya-rgod-spos/ Musk larkspur | Herb | Stem Leaves | Paste is made from the leaves and used topically. Decoction is obtained from the leaves and taken orally. | Stem is used to treat skin diseases. Leaves are used against evil spirits, poisoning, epidemic fever, itching, cold, cough, and snakebite. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Delphinium cashmerianum Royle. (Del-cas) Ranunculaceae SMH-180 | Ba-ru-ra, Ladar/ Kashmir larkspur | Herb | Leaves | Fresh leaves are used as such. | Insecticide. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D.Don) Soó. (Dac-hat) Orchidaceae SMH-201 | Ambo-lakpa/ Himalayan marsh orchid | Herb | Roots | Roots are made into decoction and used orally. | Energy boosters; improve health; recommended for weak people. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Dracocephalum heterophyllum Benth. (Dra-het) Lamiaceae SMH-179 | Jib-rtse-Karpo, Jib pa dkar thog,x Mdzo mo nu nu/ White dragonhead | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Raw leaves are chewed. Boiled in hot water to get vapors. | Leaves are used against toothache and eye diseases. Flowers are used to treat irritation, burning sensation, and pain. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Dracocephalum tanguticum Maxim. (Dra-tan) Lamiaceae SMH-200 | Pri-yang-ku, Klum o gur gum, Btsun mo gur gum/ ---------- | Herb | Leaves | Leaves are boiled in water and eaten. | Hepatitis, gastritis, dizziness, arthritis, and stomach ulcer. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Doronicum falconeri C.B. Clarke ex Hook.f. (Dor-fal) Asteraceae SMH-120 | Mentok-serpo/ False leopard’s bane | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Paste is made from both leaves and flowers. | Leaves are used to treat diphtheria and viral and bacterial diseases. Flowers are used to treat swelling and pain due to hypertension. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Echinops cornigerus DC. (Ech-cor) Asteraceae SMH-135 | Aczema/ Blue globe thistle | Herb | Roots Leave | Roots are powdered and mixed with curd and used topically. Leaves are dried and ground to form small tablets and taken with water orally. | Roots are used to treat yellowish coloration of eyes due to jaundice. Leaves are used to treat septic wounds. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Ephedra gerardiana Wall. ex Stapf. (Eph-ger) Ephedraceae SMH-119 | Tsepat, Chhepat/ Gerard jointfir | Herb | Leaves Stem Flowers | Leaves are made into paste and applied topically. Young stem twigs are cut into the size of a toothbrush. Flowers are made into decoction, used orally. | Leaves are used to reduce fever. Flowers are used to treat hepatic diseases, rheumatism, and bronchial asthma. | Stem is an alternative to toothbrush and paste. Dried stem is also used as fuel. | N | Y | N |
Epilobium latifolium L. (Epi-lat) Onagraceae SMH-106 | Byar-pan-chu-tse/ Dwarf fireweed | Herb | Flowers Leaves | Flowers are made into paste and used topically. Decoction is made from the leaves and used orally. | Flowers are used against dropsy. Leaves are used against urine obstruction, severe pain, fever due to elephantiasis, arthritis, and pimples. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Fritillaria verticillata Willd. (Fri-ver) Liliaceae SMH-189 | Shri khanta/ --------- | Herb | Bulbs | Bulbs are ground and mixed with honey and taken orally. | Antidote, antitussive, astringent, expectorant, and purgative. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke. (Fer-jae) Apiaceae SMH-178 | Wild Hing, Tru-nag/ Wild Asafoetida | Herb | Roots | Roots are dried and ground to a powder, mixed with spring water to form a paste, and used topically. | Septic wounds and cuts. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem. (Gen-chi) Gentianaceae SMH-118 | Tik-ta/ Indian gentian | Herb | Whole plant | Decoction is made and taken orally. | Febrifuge, carminative, expectorant, laxative, stomachic, anthelmintic, and anti-diarrheal. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Gentiana urnula Harry Sm. (Gen-urn) Gentianaceae SMH-177 | Ganga-chung, Rgyal mtshan ganga chung, Gangs las skyes/ Starfish succulent | Herb | Whole plant | Decoction is made and taken orally. | Prominent laxative, anthelmintic, and anti-diarrheal. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Gentiana algida Pall. (Gen-alg) Gentianaceae SMH-157 | Tiktas, Spang-gyan-karpo, Ta pa ni/ whitish gentian | Herb | Flowers | Flowers are dried, ground, mixed with lime and honey, and taken orally. | To reduce the inflammation of the pharynx, bronchitis, cough, hoarseness of throat, excess sputum, and toxic and epidemic fevers. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Herminium monorchis (L.) R.Br. (Her-mon) Orchidaceae SMH-198 | Bye-lche-lag-pa/ Musk orchid | Herb | Roots | Fresh and dry roots are half ground and boiled in water, and taken orally. | Rejuvenates health, increases sperm count; vital essence; acts as aphrodisiac and improves kidney heat. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Hippophae rhamnoides L. (Hip-rha) Elaeagnaceae SMH-156 | Gla ba tsher ma, Gle tsher, Star ru/ Sea-buckthorn | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally. | Anti-aging, anti-cold, memory sharpener, and energy booster. | Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder. | Y | Y | Y |
Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. (Her-can) Apiaceae SMH-136 | Spru-nag/ Cartwheel flower | Herb | Roots | Roots are sun-dried and kept for 1 month, then ground to a powder and mixed with curd to form a paste, applied topically. | Sunburn, skin diseases, and external tumors. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Iris lactea Pall. (Iri-lac) Iridaceae SMH-117 | Dres-ma, Mo dres, Modrey/ Milky iris | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally. | Appetite, stomach cramps, small and large intestinal cramps, and food-poisoning diseases. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Ixeris gracilis (DC.) Stebbins. (Ixe-gra) Asteraceae SMH-190 | Rtga-mkhris/ --------- | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is dried and powdered. Decoction is made and taken orally. | Antihyperglycemic activity, and dysentery. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Inula racemosa Hook.f. (Inu-rac) Asteraceae SMH-176 | Ma-nu, Pushkarmool/ Indian elecampane | Herb | Roots | Dried roots are powdered, mixed with cow milk, and taken orally. | Bronchial asthma, anthelmintic in children, antiseptic, expectorant, and diuretic. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. (Jur-dol) Asteraceae SMH-116 | Bya-rog-nyungs-ma/ Dhoop | Herb | Leaves Bark | Paste is made from dry leaves and bark and applied topically. | Leaves are used against rheumatic pains. Bark is used as antiseptic. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Juniperus indica Bertol. (Jun-ind) Cupressaceae SMH-137 | Shukpa, Spa ma, Spa ma bdud rtsi zil pa can/ Black juniper | Shrub | Leaves Bark | Raw leaves are used. Fresh and dried barks are smelled. | Bark is used in inflammation and menstrual problems. | Leaves are used as incense by Buddhists, and hence is attributed religious significance. Bark is used in dealing with nightmares in Muslims. | Y | Y | Y |
Juniperus recurva Buch. -Ham. ex D.Don. (Jun-rec) Cupressaceae SMH-155 | Shug-pa-tser-chan/ Drooping juniper | Shrub | Leaves Fruits | Powdered leaves are used with stream water and taken orally. Fruits are taken raw. | Leaves are used to treat kidney problems and muscular spasms. Fruit improves health. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Lactuca dissecta D. Don. (Lac-dis) Asteraceae SMH-107 | Khala/ Split-leaf lettuce | Herb | Leaves Stem | Dried leaves and stem are ground, mixed with water to form paste, and applied topically. | Infections of female external genital organs. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Lonicera spinosa (Decne.) Jacq. ex Walp. (Lon-spi) Caprifoliaceae SMH-138 | Phang-ma/ Spiny Honeysuckle | Herb | Flowers | Flowers are kept in an air-tight jar for more than 40 days for fermentation and then taken orally. | Asthma, headache, and gynecological disorders. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Leonurus japonicus Houtt. Lamiaceae (Leo-jap) SMH-165 | Zin-tig/ Oriental motherwort | Herb | Leaves Stem | Leaves are shade-dried and powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally. Decoction is made from the stem and taken orally. | Leaves regulate menstrual disturbance, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, blood stasis, and postpartum hemorrhage. Stem is used as diuretic. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Lagotis cashmeriana Rupr. (Lag-cas) Plantaginaceae SMH-175 | Hong-len/ Kashmir lagotis | Herb | Roots | Roots are shade-dried and boiled in water and taken orally. | Reduce inflammation, vital fever, liver fever, lungs fever, intestinal fever, poisonous, painful cramps, muscular spasms, and child dysentery. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Myricaria squamosa Desv. (Myr-squ) Tamaricaceae SMH-174 | Om-bu/ Scaly false tamarisk | Shrub | Stem | Dried stem is ground and decoction is made; taken orally. | Food poisoning. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Myricaria elegans Royle. (Myr-ele) Tamaricaceae SMH-115 | Hom-bu/ Elegant false tamarisk | Shrub | Stem | Stem is ground and boiled in water for 20 min and then eaten. | Fever of lungs, diarrhea, arthritis, uterine bleeding, stomach pain, and headache. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Meconopsis aculeata Royle. (Mec-acu) Papaveraceae SMH-154 | Ud-pal-sngon-po/ Poppy | Herb | Leaves | Fresh leaves are powdered, mixed with water to make a paste, and applied topically. | Headache. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Morina longifolia Wall. ex DC. (Mor-lon) Caprifoliaceae SMH-191 | Spyang-tsher, Bya tra pad, Chang tsher karpo/ Himalayan whorl flower | Herb | Roots Young—twigs | Decoction is made from the roots and young twigs and taken orally. | Roots are used against phlegm disease, cancer, and swelling. Young twigs are used for indigestion. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Nepeta floccosa Benth. (Nep-flo) Lamiaceae SMH-153 | Shangukuram/ Woolly catmint | Herb | Leaves | Dried leaves are ground to a powder. | --------------- | Leaves add flavor in local dishes. | Y | Y | Y |
Oxytropis microphylla (Pall.) DC. (Oxy-mic) Fabaceae SMH-139 | Tag-sha nagpo, Sngo stag sha, Pa nig ho ra/ Small leaved locoweed | Herb | Whole plant | Fresh plant is used. | --------------- | The whole plant bears a strong fragrance and hence is kept in homes. | Y | Y | N |
Onosma hookeri C.B. Clarke. (Ono-hoo) Boraginaceae SMH-108 | Bri-mog, xi hua dian zi cao/ ---------- | Herb | Roots Bark Leaves | Decoction is made from the roots, bark, and leaves and used orally. | Roots are used against asthma, cough, and fever. Bark is used against gonorrhea and leprosy. Leaves are used against phthisis. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Picris hieracioides Sibth. & Sm. (Pic-hie) Asteraceae SMH-152 | Rgya-mkhur, Aam dkar, Gyakhur/ Hawkweed oxtongue | Herb | Whole plant | Plant is dried and powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally. | Gastro-intestinal disorder, blood disorder, bile disorder, chronic fever, and contagious fever. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Pedicularis cheilanthifolia Schrenk. (Ped-che) Orobanchaceae SMH-192 | Lug-ru-smog-po, sui mi jue ye/ White Lousewort | Herb | Stem | Stem is dried and ground to a fine powder and taken with water orally. | Stomach ache. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Pedicularis longiflora Rudolph. (Ped-lon) Orobanchaceae SMH-166 | Lug-ru-ser-po/ Long tube lousewort | Herb | Flowers | Decoction is obtained from dried flowers and used orally. | Diuretic, liver, and gallbladder disorders, excessive seminal discharge, and edema. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Piper longum L. (Pip-lon) Piperaceae SMH-173 | Pi-pi-ling, Byi ril ma, Yul dbus/ Long pepper | Herb | Roots Fruits | Roots and fruits are dried and boiled in water for some time and then taken orally. | Prevention and treatment of prostate cancer. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Plantago depressa Willd. (Pla-dep) Plantaginaceae SMH-140 | Tha-ram/ Blond psyllium | Herb | Leaves Stem Flowers | Leaves are dried, powdered, and taken with lukewarm water orally. Fresh stem is ground, made into a paste, and applied topically. Decoction is obtained from the flowers and used orally. | Leaves are used against dysentery. Stem is used against burn wounds. Flowers are used against bleeding and inflammation. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Polygonum aviculare L. (Pol-avi) Polygonaceae SMH-151 | Byi-na-sa/ Knotgrass | Herb | Whole plant | Decoction is obtained by grinding and boiling in water for more than 3 h and taken orally. | Obstruction of urine, burning sensation during urination, jaundice, and dermatological diseases with itching. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Potentilla anserina L. (Pot-ans) Rosaceae SMH-144 | Gro-lo sa-hdzin, Gro ma, Dolo sazin/ Silverweed | Herb | Leaves | Leaves are dried in homes, powdered, and used orally with water. | Diarrhea/dysentery, and health tonic. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Picrorhiza kurroa Royle. (Pic-kur) Scrophulariaceae SMH-199 | Hong-len, Kutki/ Katuk | Herb | Roots Flowers | Roots are dried in shade, powdered, mixed with water, and taken orally. Dried flowers are hand-rubbed into lukewarm water and used orally. | Roots are used to treat asthmatic disorders and fever. Flowers are used in blood purification. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Physochlaina praealta (Decne.) Miers. (Phy-pra) Solanaceae SMH-109 | Lantang, Thang-phron-nagpo/ Praealtus,-a,-um | Herb | Seeds Leaves | Seeds are ground to a fine powder and used orally with lukewarm water. Fresh leaves are ground to obtain the juice, which is used as eye drops. | Seeds are used as vermifuge. Leaves are used against eye diseases. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Rhodiola imbricata Edgew. (Rho-imb) Crassulaceae SMH-143 | Shro lo, Cho-ngo-ngo/ Greek rhodon | Herb | Roots | Roots are boiled in water, mixed with lime, and taken orally. | Lung problems, cold, cough, fever, loss of energy, and pulmonary complaints. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Rhodiola sacra Prain ex Raym. Hamet S.H. Fu. (Rho-sac) Crassulaceae SMH-193 | Srolo-marpo/ Arctic root | Herb | Roots Leaves | Roots are dried and ground and taken orally with water. Fresh young leaves are used. | Roots are used as tonic and to restore memory. | Leaves are cooked as vegetables. | Y | Y | Y |
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don. (Rho-ant) Ericaceae SMH-111 | Ba-lu/da-lis/ Brass | Shrub | Leaves Flowers | Leaves and flowers are dried, hand-rubbed, kept in hot water for some time, and taken orally. | Leaves are used to treat high-altitude diseases, chest pain, weakness, obstruction of vocal cords, and chronic bronchitis. Flowers are used against stiffness of limbs, and phlegm disorders. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Ribes orientale Desf. (Rib-ori) Grossulariaceae SMH-141 | Askuta, Se-rgod/ Oriental gooseberry | Shrub | Fruits | Raw fruits are used. | Swollen limbs, food poisoning, hepatitis, fever of the gallbladder, and epidemic fever. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Rheum webbianum Royle. (Rhe-web) Polygonaceae SMH-150 | Chu-rtsa/ Indian rhubarb | Herb | Root Stem Leaves | Decoction is made from fresh roots and taken orally. Fresh stem is made into a paste and applied topically. Raw leaves are taken orally. | Roots are used against indigestion and abdominal diseases. Stem is used to treat boils and wounds. Leaves are used against gastritis and as laxative and astringent. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Ranunculus adoxifolius (Ran-ado) Hand. -Mazz. Ranunculaceae SMH-110 | Ga-tsah-am-lche-tsah/ Buttercup | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Decoction is made from leaves and taken orally. Fresh flowers are made into a paste, applied topically. | Leaves are used to normalize the digestive heat. Flowers are used against old wounds and dropsy. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Rosa sericea Wall. ex Lindl. (Ros-ser) Rosaceae SMH-149 | Shayh/ Silky rose | Shrub | Whole plant | Litter and dried plant/ fresh plant is used. | --------------- | Whole plant is an ornamental hedge. Plant is also used as fuel and fodder. | Y | Y | Y |
Rosa webbiana Wall. ex Royle. (Ros- web) Rosaceae SMH-204 | Seba, Sia Webb’s rose | Shrub | Flowers | Fresh flowers are used. | --------------- | Flowers are used as an ornaments. | Y | Y | Y |
Rubia cordifolia L. (Rub-cor) Rubiaceae SMH-168 | Btsod/ Common madder | Herb | Stem | Decoction taken orally is made from dried stem. | Blood disorders, blood fever, spreading fever, lung fever, kidney fever, and intestine fever. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Rheum spiciforme Royle. (Rhe-spi) Polygonaceae SMH-167 | Lachhu/ Spiked rhubarb | Herb | Roots | Roots are boiled in water and then used orally. | Rheumatism. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Salix pycnostachya Andersson. (Sal-pyc) Salicaceae SMH-206 | Malchang/ Willow | Tree | Branches Stem Leaves | Fresh branches are used. Dried stem is used. Fresh leaves are used. | --------------- | Muslims use branches as pillows for corpses in the graves. Stem is used as fuel wood. Leaves are used as fodder. | Y | N | N |
Stipa orientalis Trin. ex Ledeb. (Sti-ori) Poaceae Malchang | Pilli, Makpen/ Feather grass | Herb | Whole plant | Both fresh and dried plants are used. | --------------- | Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder. | Y | Y | N |
Stachys tibetica Vatke. (Sta-tib) Lamiaceae SMH-145 | Yakzas/ Tibetan woundwort | Herb | Whole plant | Dried plant is ground to a fine powder, mixed with curd, and taken orally. | Mental disorders and phobias. | Whole plant is used as fuel and fodder. | Y | Y | N |
Sedum ewersii Ledeb. (Sed-ewe) Crassulaceae SMH-169 | Srolo-karpo/ Pink sedum | Herb | Whole plant | Fresh and dried plants are used. | Plant is given in bulk to the cattle to increase milk production. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Saussurea bracteata Decne. (Sau-bra) Asteraceae SMH-148 | Spang-rtsa/ Narrow-leaved saw-wort | Herb | Flowers | Paste is made from flowers and applied topically. | Boils. | Flowers are used as ornaments. | Y | Y | Y |
Saussurea lappa (Decne.) Sch.Bip. (Sau-lap) Asteraceae SMH-112 | Kuth, Ru-ta/ Kust | Herb | Roots | Roots are powdered and taken with water orally. | Asthma and fever. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Saussurea roylei C.B. Clarke. (Sau-roy) Asteraceae SMH-142 | Kon-pa-gab-skyes-che-ba/ Royle’s saw-wort | Herb | Leaves | Fresh flowers are made into a decoction and taken orally. | Chronic and fresh wounds, bleeding due to nerve disorders. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Tylophora fasciculata Buch. -Ham. ex Wight. (Tyl-fas) Apocynaceae SMH-194 | Go-snyod/ Country ipikakyun | Herb | Fruits | Raw fruits are eaten. | Dysentery and hot disorder of gallbladder. | --------------- | N | Y | N |
Tanacetum dolichophyllum (Kitam.) Kitam. (Tan-dol) Asteraceae SMH-113 | Mkhan-chung-ser-mgo/ Garden tansy | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Fresh leaves are ground, and a little juice is obtained and taken orally. Flowers are boiled in water for 5 min and then taken orally with water. | Leaves are used against nose bleeding, swelling, and inflammation of the limbs, cancers, wounds, and lung disorders. Flowers are used against renal diseases. | --------------- | N | Y | Y |
Tanacetum gracile Hook.f. & Thomson. (Tan-gra) Asteraceae SMH-146 | Khamchu/ Daisy | Herb | Leaves Flowers | Leaves and flowers are shade-dried. Flowers are shade-dried and covered with a fine cotton cloth. | --------------- | Leaves are a good source of oil. Flowers are fragrant and a good source of oil. | N | Y | Y |
Thlaspi arvense L. (Thl-arv) Brassicaceae SMH-170 | Bre-ga/ Field pennycress | Herb | Leaves | Leaves are dried and powdered; decoction is made and taken orally. | Pulmonary diseases, kidney diseases, and white discharges. | --------------- | Y | Y | Y |
Trigonella emodi Benth. (Tri-emo) Fabaceae SMH-147 | Hbu-su-hang/ Himalayan fenugreek | Herb | Seeds Leaves | Seeds are dried, ground, mixed with turmeric to form a paste, and applied topically. Leaves are dried and powdered; decoction is made and taken orally. | Seeds are used against sores and bone fractures. Leaves are used to treat kidney disorders. | --------------- | Y | Y | N |
Urtica hyperborea Jacq. ex Wedd. (Urt-hyp) Urticaceae SMH-171 | Rza-sot/ Northern nettle | Herb | Leaves | Leaves are dried, powdered, and taken orally with lukewarm water. | Promotes digestive and physical heat, and wind diseases associated with chronic fever. | Leaves are used as food (soup). | N | Y | Y |
Waldheimia tomentosa (Decne.) Regel. (Wal-tom) Asteraceae SMH-114 | Palu/ Yellow berried nightshade | Herb | Whole plant | Decoction is made and used orally. Fresh and dried plants are used. | Acidity, headache, and arthritis. | Whole plant is considered holy in the Buddhist faith and used for making incense (dhoop), which is used in houses and religious places. Plant is also used in the bathing ceremony of deceased persons and newborn babies. | Y | Y | Y |
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Haq, S.M.; Yaqoob, U.; Calixto, E.S.; Rahman, I.U.; Hashem, A.; Abd_Allah, E.F.; Alakeel, M.A.; Alqarawi, A.A.; Abdalla, M.; Hassan, M.; et al. Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region. Biology 2021, 10, 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827
Haq SM, Yaqoob U, Calixto ES, Rahman IU, Hashem A, Abd_Allah EF, Alakeel MA, Alqarawi AA, Abdalla M, Hassan M, et al. Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region. Biology. 2021; 10(9):827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827
Chicago/Turabian StyleHaq, Shiekh Marifatul, Umer Yaqoob, Eduardo Soares Calixto, Inayat Ur Rahman, Abeer Hashem, Elsayed Fathi Abd_Allah, Maha Abdullah Alakeel, Abdulaziz A. Alqarawi, Mohnad Abdalla, Musheerul Hassan, and et al. 2021. "Plant Resources Utilization among Different Ethnic Groups of Ladakh in Trans-Himalayan Region" Biology 10, no. 9: 827. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology10090827