Power Generation in Slope-Type Thin-Film Thermoelectric Generators by the Simple Contact of a Heat Source

To conveniently generate electric energy for next-generation smart network monitoring systems, we propose the design and fabrication of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators by the simple contact of a heat source. N-type Bi2Te3 films and p-type Sb2Te3 films were formed on a stainless-steel substrate employing potentiostatic electrodeposition using a nitric acid-based bath, followed by a transfer process. In order to naturally induce a temperature difference (∆T) between the ends of the generator, slope blocks made by polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) were prepared and then inserted between the generators and heat sources. The performance of the generators, the open circuit voltage (Voc), and the maximum output power (Pmax), were measured using PDMS slope angles as the temperature of the heat source was increased. The ∆T of the generators increased as the slope angle was increased. The generator with the highest slope angle (28◦) exhibited a Voc of 7.2 mV and Pmax of 18.3 μW at ∆T of 15 K for a heat source temperature of 42 ◦C. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators, which can be fabricated with a low manufacturing cost.


Introduction
Thermoelectric power generators are solid-state devices that can directly convert a temperature gradient into electric power.As there are no moving parts or liquid/gas medium, they have the potential to be highly reliable and environmentally friendly energy conversion systems.The thermoelectric generators consist of p-and n-type semiconducting pillars connected by metal electrodes.In addition, there are two types of thermoelectric generators, the bulk type and the thin-film type.Conventionally, thermoelectric generators of the bulk type have been used in places with relatively high-temperature heat sources, including waste heat from automobile engines and incinerators [1][2][3].However, as the Internet of things (IoT) is currently generating a great deal of interest in relation to next-generation smart network monitoring systems, thermoelectric generators using low-temperature heat sources are increasingly important [4].In IoT technology, autonomous sensors are expected to play an important role in a wide spectrum of applications, including medical monitoring, emergency response, and industrial and environment controls [5].These autonomous sensors need to perform functionally independent operations without changing batteries and requiring additional maintenance.Thermoelectric generators satisfy the requirements of autonomous sensors.They can semi-permanently generate electric power from various places with low-temperature heat sources, such as human bodies and hot water pipes, due to their flexibility [6,7].
Compared with their bulk counterparts, thin-film thermoelectric power generators are more likely to be suitable for powering autonomous sensors, since they are lightweight, and can be miniaturized to generator size and processed with a lower manufacturing cost.To date, there have been many studies on thin-film thermoelectric generator fabrication using various film deposition methods, including evaporation [8][9][10], sputtering [11][12][13], and electrodeposition [14][15][16].In addition, thin film thermoelectric materials possess favorable features that are not exhibited by bulk materials.The presence of nanostructured materials, including superlattices [17][18][19] nanocrystals [20][21][22], nanoporous structures [23][24][25], and inducing stresses [26][27][28], enhances the thermoelectric performance.The thermoelectric performance is defined as the figure of merit, ZT = S 2 σ T/κ, where S is the Seebeck coefficient, σ is electrical conductivity, and κ is thermal conductivity.Since thin-film thermoelectric materials are affected by the thermal conductivity of the substrate, their performance is mainly determined by the electrical part indicated by the power factor, P.F.= S 2 σ.
However, thin-film thermoelectric generators struggle to generate a temperature difference in the cross-plane direction.Since thin-film thermoelectric generators have relatively long pillar shaped structures, it is possible to generate the temperature difference in the in-plane direction [29][30][31][32][33].For instance, Jacquot et al. [34] invented on-membrane thermoelectric generators and optimized the geometry of generators using model calculations.Takayama et al. [35] fabricated multi-layered-stack thermoelectric generators and exhibited electric power by applying a temperature difference in the in-plane direction.When the design of thin-film thermoelectric generators is optimized, they can generate electric power by adding a heat source without applying an arbitrary temperature difference between the hot and cold sides.
In this study, thin-film thermoelectric generators were fabricated using electrodeposition and transfer processes.This combined approach both takes advantage of electrodeposition and compensates for its disadvantages [36].We used bismuth telluride (Bi 2 Te 3 ) and antimony telluride (Sb 2 Te 3 ) as the n-and p-type thermoelectric materials, respectively, because these materials exhibit a high figure of merit near room temperature (RT) [37,38].In order to effectively generate a temperature difference in the generators, a slope-shaped material with low-thermal conductance was attached to the back of the generator.We changed the angle of the slope blocks and measured temperatures both proximal and distal to the heat source.The performance of the generators, the open circuit voltage (V oc ), and maximum output power (P max ), were measured by changing the temperature of the heat source.

Experimental Approach
Prior to the fabrication of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators, we prepared n-type Bi 2 Te 3 and p-type Sb 2 Te 3 thin films using potentiostatic electrodeposition and a standard three-electrode cell; we then measured their thermoelectric properties.The basic setup used for the electrodeposition of both thin films has been described in our previous reports [14,39,40].A stainless-steel substrate with a thickness of 80 µm was used as the working electrode (electrode area: 1.5 cm 2 ), and a platinum-coated titanium mesh on a titanium plate was used as the counter electrode (combined area electrode of the mesh and plate: 1.5 cm 2 ).An Ag/AgCl (saturated KCl) electrode was used as the reference electrode.A potentiostat/galvanostat (Hokuto Denko, Osaka, Japan, HA-151B) was used to control the voltage at −0.01 V vs. Ag/AgCl standard electrode.For fabricating the Bi 2 Te 3 thin films, nitric acid (0.4 M; diluted with deionized water) containing 2.0 mM Bi(NO 3 ) 3 (99.9%)and 3.0 mM TeO 2 (99.9%) was used as the electrolyte solution; the initial pH was approximately 1.0.For preparing the Sb 2 Te 3 thin films, nitric acid (0.4 M; diluted with deionized water) containing 0.83 mM SbF 3 (99.9%)and 1.3 mM TeO 2 (99.9%) was used as the electrolyte solution; the initial pH was approximately 1.0.The thickness of both types of the thin films was approximately 1 µm.
Following electrodeposition, thermal annealing was performed to improve the thermoelectric properties of the thin films.The basic annealing procedure is described in our previous report [41].In brief, the furnace was filled with a mixture of argon (95%) and hydrogen (5%) gases at atmospheric pressure.The gas flow rate was maintained at 1.0 L/min throughout the annealing process.The annealing condition was 250 • C for 1 h.Following the thermal annealing, the samples were left to cool to below 50 • C in the furnace.After thermal annealing, to avoid complications arising from electrical conduction through the stainless-steel substrate, the film was fixed on a glass plate using epoxy resin, and the thin film was subsequently removed from the stainless-steel substrate.The in-plane Seebeck coefficient, S, of the thin films was measured near RT with an accuracy of ±10%.The Seebeck coefficient was measured by connecting one side of the film to a heater and the other side to a heat sink kept near RT, with a temperature difference of <4 K between both the sides.The sheet resistance, R s , was measured near RT using the four-point probe method (RT-70V, NAPSON, Tokyo, Japan), and the in-plane electrical conductivity, σ, was estimated from the sheet resistance and the film thickness.Both the Seebeck coefficient and sheet resistance were measured thrice at different portions of each sample to extract the average values.Finally, the in-plane power factor, S 2 σ, was estimated from the measured Seebeck coefficient and electrical conductivity.The fabrication process of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators is described in Section 3.2.The measuring method for the performance of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators is described in Section 3.3.

Thermoelectric Properties of n-Type Bi 2 Te 3 and p-Type Sb 2 Te 3 Thin Films
Table 1 presents the in-plane thermoelectric properties, Seebeck coefficient, sheet resistance, and estimated power factor, of the thin films.The n-type Bi 2 Te 3 thin film exhibited a Seebeck coefficient of −80 µV/K, sheet resistance of 6.0 Ω/square and estimated power factor of 5.2 µW•cm −1 •K −2 ).On the other hand, the p-type Sb 2 Te 3 thin film exhibited a Seebeck coefficient of 100 µV/K, sheet resistance of 12 Ω/square, and estimated power factor of 8.8 µW cm −1 •K −2 ).The thermoelectric properties of both types of thin films were significantly higher than those of corresponding thin films in our previous study, because the thin films in this study were thermally annealed [36].In addition, the thin films in this study exhibited comparable values when compared to well-established thin films prepared using electrodeposition [42].After fabricating the thin-film generators, we calculated the electrical resistance of the generators based on the thermoelectric properties of the n-and p-type thin films.

Fabrication of Slope-Type Thin-Film Thermoelectric Generators
After determining the electrodeposition conditions of n-type Bi 2 Te 3 and p-type Sb 2 Te 3 thin films, we fabricated the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators.Figure 1 shows a schematic flow diagram of the process employed.Fabrication of the thin-film thermoelectric generators consists of two steps, fabrication of the thin-film thermoelectric generator and of the polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) slope blocks.We used PDMS for the slope blocks, because it has both flexibility and a relatively low thermal conductivity [43].
For fabricating the thin-film thermoelectric generator (left side in Figure 1), we prepared stainless-steel substrates covered with a protective tape; these were partially clipped to achieve rectangle-shaped patterns.The position and shape of the rectangles on the substrate used for the fabrication of the p-type film correspond to a mirror image of those used for the fabrication of the n-type film.The n-and p-type films were electrodeposited inside the rectangle-shaped patterns with a thickness of 3.1 and 4.1 µm, respectively.The electrodeposition conditions employed for the fabrication of the n-and p-type thin films were the same as those presented in Section 2. After removing the protection tapes from the substrates, only the rectangle-shaped n-and p-type films were left on each stainless-steel substrate.The n-and p-types rectangle-shaped films were then transferred onto a thin epoxy resin (CA-147, Cemedine Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) partially pasted on polyimide film (Kapton ® film 500V, Du Pont-Toray Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan).After the transfer process, thermal annealing was performed under the same conditions as those described in Section 2. Next, silver pastes were painted on both ends of the n-and p-type rectangle-shaped films.The n-and p-type films were connected together, followed by drying the silver paste in air, and wrapping with thermoplastic sheets (Laminating Film, Jointex, Tokyo, Japan).The thermoplastic sheets were heat-sealed using a laminating machine.
Coatings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 9 thermal annealing was performed under the same conditions as those described in Section 2. Next, silver pastes were painted on both ends of the n-and p-type rectangle-shaped films.The n-and ptype films were connected together, followed by drying the silver paste in air, and wrapping with thermoplastic sheets (Laminating Film, Jointex, Tokyo, Japan).The thermoplastic sheets were heatsealed using a laminating machine.For fabricating the PDMS slope blocks (right side in Figure 1), we first prepared frames with different slope angles (8°, 13°, 18°, 23°, and 28°) using a 3D printer (da Vinci1.0AIO 3D, XZY printing, Tokyo, Japan).After putting a wrap film in the frame, the PDMS (KER-4690, Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was poured into the frames, and hardened under the UV light (FL20SSBR/18, NEC, Tokyo, Japan).We put the thin-film thermoelectric generator to a PDMS slope block.Note that the generator is detachable from the slope blocks, so the same generator can be assembled with five types of slope blocks with different slope angles.
Figure 2 shows photographs of the typical slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators with different slope angles.Each generator was commonly composed of two pairs of n-and p-type films with a length of 25 mm and width of 6 mm; the maximum heights were 6 mm (Figure 2a), 8 mm (Figure 2b), or 14 mm (Figure 2c), depending on the angle.In the all types of generator, Cu wires as electrodes were connected to the edges of n-and p-type thin films.For fabricating the PDMS slope blocks (right side in Figure 1), we first prepared frames with different slope angles (8 • , 13 • , 18 • , 23 • , and 28 • ) using a 3D printer (da Vinci1.0AIO 3D, XZY printing, Tokyo, Japan).After putting a wrap film in the frame, the PDMS (KER-4690, Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was poured into the frames, and hardened under the UV light (FL20SSBR/18, NEC, Tokyo, Japan).We put the thin-film thermoelectric generator to a PDMS slope block.Note that the generator is detachable from the slope blocks, so the same generator can be assembled with five types of slope blocks with different slope angles.
Figure 2 shows photographs of the typical slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators with different slope angles.Each generator was commonly composed of two pairs of n-and p-type films with a length of 25 mm and width of 6 mm; the maximum heights were 6 mm (Figure 2a), 8 mm (Figure 2b), or 14 mm (Figure 2c), depending on the angle.In the all types of generator, Cu wires as electrodes were connected to the edges of n-and p-type thin films.
Coatings 2018, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 9 thermal annealing was performed under the same conditions as those described in Section 2. Next, silver pastes were painted on both ends of the n-and p-type rectangle-shaped films.The n-and ptype films were connected together, followed by drying the silver paste in air, and wrapping with thermoplastic sheets (Laminating Film, Jointex, Tokyo, Japan).The thermoplastic sheets were heatsealed using a laminating machine.For fabricating the PDMS slope blocks (right side in Figure 1), we first prepared frames with different slope angles (8°, 13°, 18°, 23°, and 28°) using a 3D printer (da Vinci1.0AIO 3D, XZY printing, Tokyo, Japan).After putting a wrap film in the frame, the PDMS (KER-4690, Shin-Etsu Chemical Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was poured into the frames, and hardened under the UV light (FL20SSBR/18, NEC, Tokyo, Japan).We put the thin-film thermoelectric generator to a PDMS slope block.Note that the generator is detachable from the slope blocks, so the same generator can be assembled with five types of slope blocks with different slope angles.
Figure 2 shows photographs of the typical slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators with different slope angles.Each generator was commonly composed of two pairs of n-and p-type films with a length of 25 mm and width of 6 mm; the maximum heights were 6 mm (Figure 2a), 8 mm (Figure 2b), or 14 mm (Figure 2c), depending on the angle.In the all types of generator, Cu wires as electrodes were connected to the edges of n-and p-type thin films.

Performance of Thin-Film Thermoelectric Generators
We initially measured the total resistance (R total ), contact resistance (R cont ), and film resistance (R film ) of the thin-film thermoelectric generator, as listed in Table 2.The generator exhibited an R total of 700 Ω.The resistance of two pairs of n-and p-type films (R film ) was estimated to be 580 Ω based on the results in Table 1.R cont was calculated to be 120 Ω from the difference of R total and R film .The R cont exhibited a relatively low value compared to our previous report [36], because the junctions between n-and p-type films in the generator were tightly connected using the silver paste.To measure the performance of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators, a temperature difference (∆T) was applied between the ends of the generators by the simple contact of a heat source.A schematic diagram and photograph of the V oc measurement method are shown in Figure 3.The temperatures on both the sides were monitored using a thermocouple (K-type) attached to the generator while the temperature of the heat source was increased.We limited the ∆T to a maximum of 15 K.When a ∆T was generated, the open circuit voltage (V oc ) was measured using a digital multi-meter (TR6841, TakedaRiken, Tokyo, Japan).

Performance of Thin-Film Thermoelectric Generators
We initially measured the total resistance (Rtotal), contact resistance (Rcont), and film resistance (Rfilm) of the thin-film thermoelectric generator, as listed in Table 2.The generator exhibited an Rtotal of 700 Ω.The resistance of two pairs of n-and p-type films (Rfilm) was estimated to be 580 Ω based on the results in Table 1.Rcont was calculated to be 120 Ω from the difference of Rtotal and Rfilm.The Rcont exhibited a relatively low value compared to our previous report [36], because the junctions between n-and p-type films in the generator were tightly connected using the silver paste.

Resistances Rtotal (Ω) Rcont (Ω) Rfilm (Ω)
Generator 700 120 580 To measure the performance of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators, a temperature difference (ΔT) was applied between the ends of the generators by the simple contact of a heat source.A schematic diagram and photograph of the Voc measurement method are shown in Figure 3.The temperatures on both the sides were monitored using a thermocouple (K-type) attached to the generator while the temperature of the heat source was increased.We limited the ΔT to a maximum of 15 K.When a ΔT was generated, the open circuit voltage (Voc) was measured using a digital multimeter (TR6841, TakedaRiken, Tokyo, Japan).The relationship between the temperature of the heat source and the ΔT in the slope-type thinfilm thermoelectric generators is shown in Figure 4.In generators with all slope angles, the ΔT increased as the temperature of heat source was increased.For the same heat source temperature, the magnitude of ΔT became larger as the slope angle of the generator increased.This indicates that thermal conduction from the heat source to the generator was more difficult at the lower end, because of the lower thermal conduction in the PDMS slope block.The generator with the lowest angle (8°) did not reach the target ΔT of 15 K, even if the heat source temperature was increased to 47 °C.However, the generator with the highest slope (28°) exhibited a ΔT of 15 K at a heat source temperature of 42 °C.Therefore, we successfully demonstrated that the structure of a generator can yield sufficient ΔT by the simple contact of a heat source at around room temperature.The relationship between the temperature of the heat source and the ∆T in the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators is shown in Figure 4.In generators with all slope angles, the ∆T increased as the temperature of heat source was increased.For the same heat source temperature, the magnitude of ∆T became larger as the slope angle of the generator increased.This indicates that thermal conduction from the heat source to the generator was more difficult at the lower end, because of the lower thermal conduction in the PDMS slope block.The generator with the lowest angle (8 • ) did not reach the target ∆T of 15 K, even if the heat source temperature was increased to 47 • C.However, the generator with the highest slope (28 • ) exhibited a ∆T of 15 K at a heat source temperature of 42 • C. Therefore, we successfully demonstrated that the structure of a generator can yield sufficient ∆T by the simple contact of a heat source at around room temperature.Figure 5 shows the Voc of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and ΔT.For generators with all slope angles, Voc increased as the temperature of the heat source was increased (Figure 5a).The generator with the greatest angle (28°) exhibited a Voc of 7.2 mV at a heat source temperature 42 °C.At the same heat source temperature, the magnitude of Voc became higher as the slope angle was increased, because generators with higher slope angles obtain larger ΔT between the ends of the generator.For instance, the Voc of generators at the same heat source temperature (42 °C) differed by 3.2 mV for those with the highest and lowest slope angles.As shown in Figure 5b, the change in Voc as a function of ΔT was the same for all slope angles, showing that Voc depends on ΔT.The Voc linearly increased as the ΔT increased.At the maximum ΔT (15 K), the Voc of generators exhibited 7.2 mV, which almost agrees with the multiplied values among the Seebeck coefficients presented in Table 1, number of pairs and ΔT.As the thin-film generator was common to all angles of slope block, the generator was shown to have a high repetitive performance against thermal load.Figure 5 shows the V oc of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and ∆T.For generators with all slope angles, V oc increased as the temperature of the heat source was increased (Figure 5a).The generator with the greatest angle (28 • ) exhibited a V oc of 7.2 mV at a heat source temperature 42 • C. At the same heat source temperature, the magnitude of V oc became higher as the slope angle was increased, because generators with higher slope angles obtain larger ∆T between the ends of the generator.For instance, the V oc of generators at the same heat source temperature (42 • C) differed by 3.2 mV for those with the highest and lowest slope angles.As shown in Figure 5b, the change in V oc as a function of ∆T was the same for all slope angles, showing that V oc depends on ∆T.The V oc linearly increased as the ∆T increased.At the maximum ∆T (15 K), the V oc of generators exhibited 7.2 mV, which almost agrees with the multiplied values among the Seebeck coefficients presented in Table 1, number of pairs and ∆T.As the thin-film generator was common to all angles of slope block, the generator was shown to have a high repetitive performance against thermal load.Figure 5 shows the Voc of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and ΔT.For generators with all slope angles, Voc increased as the temperature of the heat source was increased (Figure 5a).The generator with the greatest angle (28°) exhibited a Voc of 7.2 mV at a heat source temperature 42 °C.At the same heat source temperature, the magnitude of Voc became higher as the slope angle was increased, because generators with higher slope angles obtain larger ΔT between the ends of the generator.For instance, the Voc of generators at the same heat source temperature (42 °C) differed by 3.2 mV for those with the highest and lowest slope angles.As shown in Figure 5b, the change in Voc as a function of ΔT was the same for all slope angles, showing that Voc depends on ΔT.The Voc linearly increased as the ΔT increased.At the maximum ΔT (15 K), the Voc of generators exhibited 7.2 mV, which almost agrees with the multiplied values among the Seebeck coefficients presented in Table 1, number of pairs and ΔT.As the thin-film generator was common to all angles of slope block, the generator was shown to have a high repetitive performance against thermal load.Figure 6 shows P max of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as functions of heat source temperature and ∆T.P max is expressed as P max = V oc 2 /(4R total ), and the accuracy of measurement was approximately ±10%.In generators of all slope angles, P max increased as the temperature of heat source increased (Figure 6a).At the same temperature of heat source, the magnitude of P max became higher as the slope angle increased.For instance, when the heat  6b, the variation in P max as a function of ∆T was the same for all slope angles.This shows that P max depends on ∆T.P max quadratically increased as ∆T increased.At the maximum ∆T of 15 K, the P max of generators was 18.3 µW.The resulting P max was significantly higher than of the thin-film thermoelectric generators fabricated in our previous study [36]; this is because the thermoelectric properties of both types of thin films were increased, while the contact resistance was drastically decreased.The electric power produced in this study was sufficient to activate autonomous sensors; for example, a CMOS image sensor has a power consumption of 226 nW [44].The generators can be employed by controlling the slope angle of the PDMS blocks according to the size of the setting space and the required amount of electric power for the target sensor.
Figure 6 shows Pmax of the slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as functions of heat source temperature and ΔT.Pmax is expressed as Pmax = Voc 2 /(4Rtotal), and the accuracy of measurement was approximately ±10%.In generators of all slope angles, Pmax increased as the temperature of heat source increased (Figure 6a).At the same temperature of heat source, the magnitude of Pmax became higher as the slope angle increased.For instance, when the heat source temperature reached 42 °C, generators with slope angles of 8°, 13°, 23° and 28° exhibited Pmax values of 5.5, 9.7, 11.0, and 18.3 μW, respectively.As shown in Figure 6b, the variation in Pmax as a function of ΔT was the same for all slope angles.This shows that Pmax depends on ΔT.Pmax quadratically increased as ΔT increased.At the maximum ΔT of 15 K, the Pmax of generators was 18.3 μW.The resulting Pmax was significantly higher than of the thin-film thermoelectric generators fabricated in our previous study [36]; this is because the thermoelectric properties of both types of thin films were increased, while the contact resistance was drastically decreased.The electric power produced in this study was sufficient to activate autonomous sensors; for example, a CMOS image sensor has a power consumption of 226 nW [44].The generators can be employed by controlling the slope angle of the PDMS blocks according to the size of the setting space and the required amount of electric power for the target sensor.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Schematic process flow diagram of the fabrication of slope-type thermoelectric generators.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Schematic process flow diagram of the fabrication of slope-type thermoelectric generators.

Figure 1 .
Figure 1.Schematic process flow diagram of the fabrication of slope-type thermoelectric generators.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) photograph of the Voc measurement method.

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. (a) Schematic diagram and (b) photograph of the V oc measurement method.

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Temperature difference (ΔT) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of the heat source temperature.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. (a) Open circuit voltage (Voc) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and the (b) Voc of the generators as a function of temperature difference (ΔT).

Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Temperature difference (∆T) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of the heat source temperature.

Coatings 2018, 8 , 9 Figure 4 .
Figure 4. Temperature difference (ΔT) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of the heat source temperature.

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. (a) Open circuit voltage (Voc) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and the (b) Voc of the generators as a function of temperature difference (ΔT).

Figure 5 .
Figure 5. (a) Open circuit voltage (V oc ) of slope-type thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of heat source temperature and the (b) V oc of the generators as a function of temperature difference (∆T).

Figure 6 .
Figure 6.(a) Maximum power (P max ) of thin-film thermoelectric generators as a function of temperature difference (ΔT) and (b) P max of the generators as a function of ΔT.

Table 1 .
Thermoelectric properties of the n-and p-type thin films fabricated by electrodeposition.

Table 2 .
Total, contact, and film electrical resistances of the thin-film thermoelectric generator.

Table 2 .
Total, contact, and film electrical resistances of the thin-film thermoelectric generator.