Evil and Human Suffering in Islamic Thought—Towards a Mystical Theodicy

: This paper sheds light on the treatment of the ‘problem of evil’ and human suffering from an Islamic perspective. I begin by providing an overview of the term ‘evil’ in the Qur’an to highlight its multidimensional meaning and to demonstrate the overall portrait of this notion as it is presented in the Islamic revelation through the narrative of the prophet Job. Having established a Qur’anic framework, I will then provide a brief historical overview of the formation of philosophical and theological debates surrounding “good” and “bad/evil” and the origination of Muslim theodicean thought. This will lead us to Ghaz¯alian theodicy and the famous dictum of the “best of all possible worlds” by one of the most inﬂuential scholars of Islamic thought, Abu H . ¯amid Ghaz¯al¯ı. The ﬁnal section of this paper will explore the Suﬁ/ mystical tradition of Islam through the teachings of one of the most distinguished mystics of Islam, Jal¯al al-D¯ın R¯um¯ı. The conclusion of the paper will attempt to bring about a new understanding of how the so-called “problem of evil” is not presented in Islam as a problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of God’s plan, which is intertwined with human experiences in this world—an experience that is necessary for man’s spiritual development.


Introduction
The 'problem of evil' or, as it is more often referred to, the cause of human suffering is perhaps one of the most debated questions in the history of the philosophy of religion. 1Although the issue makes itself known to humankind in general, it gains particular attention in the context of monotheistic religions as it brings into question the main pillar of such religions, namely, the existence of a powerful and merciful God.In light of the enormous amount of evil in the world, especially in the case of undeserved suffering, the challenge becomes even more acute and begs for answers.According to Hick, pondering about the volume of afflictions and adversities that mankind is faced with, "we do indeed have to ask ourselves whether it is possible to think of this world as the work of an omnipotent creator who is motivated by limitless love . . .this is indeed the most serious challenge that there is to theistic faith." 2 This paper aims to shed light on the treatment of the 'problem of evil' and human suffering from an Islamic perspective.I will begin by providing an overview of the term 'evil' in the Qur'an to highlight its multidimensional meaning and attempt to demonstrate the overall portrait of this notion as it is presented in the Islamic revelation through the narrative of the prophet Job.Having established a Qur'anic framework, I will then provide a brief historical overview of the formation of theological debates surrounding "good" and "bad/evil" and the origination of Muslim theodicean thought.This will lead us to Ghazālian theodicy and the famous dictum of the "best of all possible worlds" by one of the most influential scholars of Islamic thought, Abu H . āmid Ghazālī.The final section of this paper will explore the Sufi/mystical tradition of Islam through the teachings of one of the most distinguished mystics of Islam, Jalāl al-Dīn R ūmī.The conclusion of the paper will attempt to bring about a new understanding of how the so-called "problem of evil" is not presented in Islam as a problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of God's plan, which is intertwined with human experiences in this world-an experience that is necessary for man's spiritual development.

Evil and Suffering in the Qur'an: An Overview
For more than fourteen hundred years the Qur'an has served as the foundation of the religion of Islam and continues to play a dynamic role in shaping and influencing the lives of its followers, regardless of their diverse cultural backgrounds.The Qur'an is also considered to be the highest source of Islamic scholarship and functions as the starting point for a major portion of scholarly works.Therefore, to understand the treatment of evil and suffering in Muslim thought, the journey must begin with studying the Qur'anic narratives where this concept makes itself known.
A cursory review of studies on theodicy reveals that the meaning of 'evil', for the most part, is assumed and is not negotiable-personal loss, illness, violence, natural disaster, etc.Although the term appears abundantly in both popular and scholarly works, there seems to be a conceptual ambiguity surrounding it: What exactly is evil?Furthermore, does human understanding of evil concur with the divine message?
A key term in Arabic that is translated as evil is 'sharr' and it is presented in two distinct categories of Qur'anic narratives.The first category includes verses that fall in the semantic field of sharr and appears amongst the moral concepts of the Qur'an.The overall notion of good (khayr) and bad/evil (sharr) is a central theme in Qur'anic teachings and is emphasized in both Meccan and Medinan phases of the Islamic revelation. 3Considering these narratives hermeneutically by applying an intra-textual contextualization method, whereby the Qur'an functions as its own interpreter,4 seems to suggest that the most prominent meaning for the term sharr in this group of narratives is the situation that man creates for himself. 5It is clearly stated in the Qur'an that when humankind, through his own volition, acts in certain ways and adapts to specific behaviors that are not in accordance with the divine plan, he situates himself in a condition that is referred to as sharr by the Qur'an.Some of the deeds that fall into this moral category include miserliness, unbelief/rejecting God, slander, and transgression. 6The Qur'an noticeably upholds that the creation of the universe-and by extension, humankind-is purposeful and not in vain. 7Man, therefore, must make a serious effort to live his life according to God's cosmic plan.By neglecting the purpose for his creation and the accountabilities that it entails, he creates an undesirable living condition for himself, that is, sharr.The purposefulness of man's creation and his responsibility as it pertains to suffering will be discussed later in the article.
The second category of Qur'anic narratives is more of an interest to us as it is directly related to human suffering and theodicy.This group of verses falls beyond the semantic field of sharr and is Intra-textual contextualization is a methodology used in understanding Qur'anic verses according to the context in which they appear individually, as well as in relation to the overall theme of all the chapters in which they appear.For an excellent discussion on the interpretation of the Qur'anic terms, see Toshibiko Izutsu, Ethico -Religious Concepts in the Qur'an (Izutsu 2002).

6
For more information on various contexts of sharr in the Qur'an, see Tunbar Yesilhark Ozkan, A Muslim Response to Evil.Said Nursi on Theodicy (Ozkan 2015, pp.19-35).
revealed in various historical contexts reflected in the Qur'an. 8A careful scrutiny of these narratives demonstrates that the so-called problem of evil-and by extension, human suffering-is not treated in the Qur'an as a theoretical problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of God's purpose.Most of these narratives illustrate that the underlying rationale for the existence of various forms of evil and suffering is that they serve as a trial (ibtilā) and test: "We shall certainly test you with fear and hunger, and loss of property, lives, and crops; however, [Prophet], give good news to those who are steadfast." 9he purpose of human suffering and its role in God's overall cosmic plan may bring about two corollaries.First, there is no contradiction between the divine attributes of God and the fact that suffering exists; therefore, affirmation of the Qur'an regarding God's omnipotence is not under question: "Say 'God, holder of all sovereignty, You give control to whoever You will, and remove it from whoever You will.You elevate whoever You will and humble whoever You will.All that is good lies in Your hands: You have power over everything." 10 Moreover, since God is undoubtedly in control of creation, suffering must also be allowed by him for God's plan to be fully executed.Second, if suffering is meant as a test and is regarded as a necessary component of life, then a Muslim must view the undesirable situations (illness, financial difficulty, loss of a loved one, etc.) as an opportunity to actualize his inner potential and move forward in his spiritual journey, becoming who he "is" as the fruit of the creational tree.
It may also be concluded that by presenting the notion of evil and suffering as part of the human experience and a necessary component of man's spiritual journey, the Qur'an refrains from articulating a systematic theodicy.Therefore, the objective is not to engage man in abstract ideas but rather to help him realize the purpose of suffering and offer guiding principles in how to overcome various forms of evil. 11Here it may be noted that the notion of 'natural evil'-a distinct category under the umbrella of the 'problem of evil'-is not treated in the Qur'an.Although the Qur'an frequently makes references to nature and events in the natural world that might not be desirable by mankind, these are not referred to as 'evil'.

Overcoming Evil: Prophet Job (Ayy ūb)-The Exemplar
The notion of prophethood (nab ¯uwwa) and the descriptive narratives about the lives of the prophets constitute a major portion of the Islamic scripture.While the prophets serve as the conduits through which the divine message is communicated to addressee communities, they are portrayed as exemplars that inspire and guide people to the straight path of monotheism.The history of Qur'anic prophethood began with Adam, chosen to become the first prophet after the trial of eating from the forbidden tree, and includes many of the figures mentioned in Judaeo-Christian traditions.Although Islamic tradition speaks of 124,000 prophets in the history of mankind, the Qur'an mentions twenty-five by name and describes their challenges as they conveyed the prophetic message to their respected communities.Prophet Muhammad is mentioned as the final messenger and is referred to as the "Seal of the Prophets". 12he story of Job (Ayy ūb), an eminent figure in Jewish and Christian tradition, is seen in the Qur'an to exemplify genuine devotion to God, gratitude through fortune and health, and patience when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to God's will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14ccording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a positive experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible."16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmā Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13 when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to God's will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14ccording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a positive experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible." 16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). 17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and the Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparative study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008,  pp.51-82).

18
For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).al-h .usnā).17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Mu Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite theologians. 19The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.
According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does. 20Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just. 21n the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22onversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Muṭahharī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing. 23rom the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24An example of the ontological interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā tazilite and the Ash 5 of 13 f suffering, which included scussed by the Muʿtazilite sulted in the group dividing, y to human beings who have to God, however, will put a laws.He is just in whatever ered by man is fair as it has s were in sharp conflict with e rules of justice but that, in r God.It is worth noting that ged these views and asserted ame manner: man, by virtue ust due to His perfection-a Ashʾarite school of thought s omnipotence with human ates all acts; humans freely n of good and evil acts.22 -through the influence of ent with the Ashʿarites.An rsian philosopher, Morteza , while aimed at vindicating rongdoing.23 d evil is enclosed within the (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is he other hand, stems from xample of the ontological e works of two prominent philosophical thought: Ibn arite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Mu 5 of 13 notion of suffering, which included to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite ever, resulted in the group dividing, plies only to human beings who have of justice to God, however, will put a His own laws.He is just in whatever encountered by man is fair as it has e thinkers were in sharp conflict with the same rules of justice but that, in ising for God.It is worth noting that , challenged these views and asserted n in the same manner: man, by virtue ever, is just due to His perfection-a orted the Ashʾarite school of thought ile God's omnipotence with human God creates all acts; humans freely acquisition of good and evil acts.22  of Islam-through the influence of sagreement with the Ashʿarites.An inent Persian philosopher, Morteza outlook, while aimed at vindicating of any wrongdoing.23 good and evil is enclosed within the xistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is vil, on the other hand, stems from 24 An example of the ontological tazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice ( IEW 5 of 13 n suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite ite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, the Ashʾarite school of thought.theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have ing to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a ator; 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humans freely acquisition of good and evil acts.22  of Islam-through the influence of isagreement with the Ashʿarites.An inent Persian philosopher, Morteza e outlook, while aimed at vindicating of any wrongdoing.23 good and evil is enclosed within the āadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Mu FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 lity of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included uffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.g to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever plied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with s who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in tion to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that uslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted t of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue dvances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a res Him to be just.21 l analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought ed that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 uslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of nt in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An is may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza tazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Mu Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite theologians.19 The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.
According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does.20  Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just.21  In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely tazilite theologians. 19The Mu 5 of 13 plan.The notion of suffering, which included ntinued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite ustice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ught.justice applies only to human beings who have the idea of justice to God, however, will put a bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever t all harm encountered by man is fair as it has e Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with bjected to the same rules of justice but that, in ncompromising for God.It is worth noting that s, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted d and man in the same manner: man, by virtue God, however, is just due to His perfection-a ians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought to reconcile God's omnipotence with human adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 te branch of Islam-through the influence of ned in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating pressors of any wrongdoing.23notion of good and evil is enclosed within the ) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is istence; evil, on the other hand, stems from ve entity. 24An example of the ontological y be seen from the works of two prominent shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā e various forms of evil such as "essential" evil "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be luded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil hat the total amount of good in the universe the other hand, extensively developed this theology with mystical insight.This approach, xistence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. 26d suffering see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive ed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology ), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes ilosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).yyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin e Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000).hilosophy (Rizvi 2009).
tazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ash propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understoo primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible."

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile th divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for thi discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names an attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). 17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspec of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which huma suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.Th theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromisin form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well a the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts b God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that i deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divin judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and th Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effor to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the ide that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing th importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with Hi attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.Thi view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, i responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses an disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesse and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theor 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparativ study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For a excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 200  pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, Th Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
arite school of thought.According to Ash exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible." 16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and the Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18e Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparative study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008,  pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
arite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does. 20Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ash disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much s exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of t

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalā divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachin attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attribut of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broad suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy with The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its ab form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He cr the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and acc judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized betw Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinio to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18e Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, c that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that G attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of m view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does no responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites respond and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the f 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of J dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason f study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at A pp. 51-82).See (Johns 2003, pp.50-51).17 For more on this see Abdol Rahman Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimah of Ibn Khald 18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, s Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).arite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Mu 5 of 13 notion of suffering, which included to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite ever, resulted in the group dividing, plies only to human beings who have of justice to God, however, will put a His own laws.He is just in whatever encountered by man is fair as it has e thinkers were in sharp conflict with the same rules of justice but that, in ising for God.It is worth noting that ), challenged these views and asserted n in the same manner: man, by virtue ever, is just due to His perfection-a orted the Ashʾarite school of thought ile God's omnipotence with human God creates all acts; humans freely acquisition of good and evil acts.22 of Islam-through the influence of sagreement with the Ashʿarites.An inent Persian philosopher, Morteza outlook, while aimed at vindicating of any wrongdoing.23 good and evil is enclosed within the existence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is vil, on the other hand, stems from .24  An example of the ontological n from the works of two prominent of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn ho was mostly recognized as Mullā forms of evil such as "essential" evil tal" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be t it is the non-essential/accidental evil tal amount of good in the universe r hand, extensively developed this ith mystical insight.This approach, s it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26 ng see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive slam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology sophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes lam (Wolfson 1976).
ein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin tazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just. 21n the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ash when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incom will in both health and prosperity, as well as during a Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes fortune, he continually attributed the source of his ble servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Simil disease, he exercised patience and recognized that h experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despa The Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine p exempt; it is through various experiences in life that propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "th primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis differen

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Deve
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theologica divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of hum discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretation attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free w suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate The discourse presents itself at the core of the theolo theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipo form were of the opinion that the only agent in this worl the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious c God, the debate developed further to question the valid deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's respons judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue cr Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a diverg to win the argument according to their understanding of The Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the that God creates human acts that include evil and advoca importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the d view was challenged by raising questions such as: If responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtaz and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actualit significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This se 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Compara pp.51-82).See (Johns 2003, pp.50-51).17 For more on this see Abdol Rahman Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddi 18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theo Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
arite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shi Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to Go will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14ccording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormo fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a serio disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a posit experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperity a health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential a propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understo primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for t discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names a attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the asp of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which hum suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.T theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromis form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept tha deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as div judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious eff to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the id that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with H attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.T view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses a disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnes and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serv significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theo 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form o dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparat study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For excellent comparative review, see A.H. The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.rding to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have ated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a n all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever 20 Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has d by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with zilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in bligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that nt Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted ement of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue st, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a equires Him to be just.21 e final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought asized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human ility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely ertain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 ly, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of lement in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An f this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza ī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing.23 the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the ological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is s a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nce and as such is viewed as a negative entity.24  An example of the ontological tion of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent hilosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn wn as Avicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā 1636).īnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil -dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be g or privation.In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil e leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe s the amount of evil.25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this ical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26 arites.An example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Mut .ahharī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ash Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13 when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to God's will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14ccording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a positive experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible." 16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and the Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparative study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008,  pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
arite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing. 23rom the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the wider ontological understanding of existence (wuj ūd) and nonexistence ( eligions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 f instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included ndeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite eologians.19 The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, hich finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought. According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have een obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a mit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever e does.20  Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has een willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with e Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in ct, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted at the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue f being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a ait that requires Him to be just.21  In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought nd emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human esponsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely cquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 onversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of ational element in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An xample of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza uṭahharī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating od from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing.23  From the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the ider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is efined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from onexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity.24  An example of the ontological terpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent uslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn īnā, known as Avicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā adrā (d.1636).
Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil harr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be adam).Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24An example of the ontological interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā Sadrā (d.1636).
Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite theologians.19 The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought. According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does.20  Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just.21  In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Muṭahharī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing.23  From the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from arad .), which can be either being or privation.In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe outweighs the amount of evil. 25Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. 26In Mullā Sadrā's view, explained in his major work called Mafātih Al-ghayb, absolute existence is absolute good and since God is the only Necessary Being, He is the absolute good: perfection applies only to the 19 For a great discussion on the Mu 5 of 13 divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included mals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ol of thought.'s law of justice applies only to human beings who have pplying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a d is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever eans that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has tion.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with s God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in al and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted ed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue odness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought tazilite's view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). 20See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
Necessary Being.Thus, the rest of creation-all contingent entities-lacks certain degrees of goodness; that is, evil and suffering are partial and negative. 27t may be concluded that Muslim philosophers 28 have mostly referred to evil as privatio boni "privation of good," which in turn provides a strong rationale for the doctrine of the optimum (al-as .lah .).According to this principle, this world, regardless of the existence of evil and human suffering, has been created in perfect fashion by its Creator who is the Perfect One.Therefore, the amount of evil and human suffering is inconsequential in relation to the volume of good that is inherent in the makeup of creation.

Evil and "The Best of All Possible Worlds": Ghazālian Theodicy
As discussed previously, the instrumentality of human suffering-purposefulness and the greater good that it brings-is emphasized in the Qur'an and is also at the core of the Muslim theological and philosophical discourse.However, the practical and more tangible aspect of this theory becomes highly observable in the teachings of one of the most influential intellectuals of Islam, namely, Ab ū H . āmid al-Ghazālī (1058-1111).Al-Ghazālī's significant impact on advancing Muslim scholastic thought is the reason he is often referred to as "the proof of Islam" (H .ujjat al-Islam).It is, however, his personal experience with suffering and, by extension, his powerful statement regarding the creation of the world-"there is not in possibility anything more wonderful than what is" (laysa fi'l-imkān abda Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite theologians. 19The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought. According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does. 20Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just. 21n the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22onversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Muṭahharī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing. 23rom the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24An example of the ontological interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā Sadrā (d.1636).
Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be either being or privation.In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe outweighs the amount of evil. 25Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. 26mimmā kān)-that is of special interest in this article.
Through a rigorous education in theology and jurisprudence, as well as Qur'anic and hadith (prophetic traditions) studies, al-Ghazālī's extraordinary abilities flourished at a relatively young age and earned him a professorship position at one of the most distinguished academic settings of his time, namely, Niz .āmīyah College in Baghdad.However, at the peak of his career, notwithstanding great achievements and recognition, al-Ghazālī became doubtful of the authenticity of his theoretical religious knowledge and resigned from his position to pursue a more interior path of piety.In Bowker's view, al-Ghazālī felt that his religious knowledge about God and the ability to describe Him with such articulacy was worthless if it did not bring him into a direct experience of God. 29 In his spiritual autobiography al-Munqidh min al-d .alāl (Deliverance from Error), al-Ghazālī describes his intellectual and emotional challenges that ultimately resulted in a major event in his life.After examining possible ways by which a deep religious knowledge and convention that is free from doubt may be attained, he affirmed that the mystic path of life where knowledge of God is grounded in direct mystical experience was the way he had to peruse.However, in preparation to travel on this path, he needed to disengage from all worldly attachments: the prestigious professorship position, family, and wealth, which in actuality proved to be much more difficult.This inner struggle lasted more than six months until he was faced with a serious illness-inability to speak, eat, or drink-that caused him afflictions and much suffering.In fact, it was through months of hardship and suffering due to unexpected physical and spiritual crises that al-Ghazālī transformed internally, leaving all of his possessions and departing to Damascus where he spent two years in contemplation and prayer in search of certitude and a personal experience of God that was free from doubtfulness. 30he positive impact of al-Ghazālī's encounter with his severe illness, which endangered his physical and mental wellness, appears in accord with the optimistic portrayal of hardship and 27 For an excellent commentary on Mullā Sadrā's magnum opus, Asfār, see (Rahman 1975). 28As mentioned previously, Ibn Rushd (Averroës, d. 1198) is considered as one of the most influential Muslim philosophers.
While he was greatly influenced by Ibn Sina, he made a considerable effort to highlight Aristotle's original roots in Islamic philosophy, and remove the Neo-Platonism influence that had entered years later.Several centuries later, Mullā Sadrā became known as the Shiite philosopher who added a mystical layer to philosophical and theological debates.For more on the development of Islamic philosophy, see (Nasr 2006). 29See John Bowker, The Religious Imagination and the Sense of God (Bowker 1978, p. 195). 30See Ab ū H . āmid Al-Ghazālī, Al-Munqidh Min Al-Dalal, Deliverance from Error (Al-Ghazālī 2006, pp.52-55).
suffering presented in the Qur'an. 31For al-Ghazālī, this apparent negative experience proved, in fact, to be positive and instrumental in the actualization of his intellectual and spiritual potentialities.As already mentioned, during his professorship in Baghdad, al-Ghazālī contributed greatly to shaping a variety of Muslim thoughts. 32Still, the practical implications of much of his teachings, particularly the relationship between theological and mystical discourses, are clearly articulated in his writings following his departure and the years he spent in seclusion.As Zarrink ūb pointed out, the authenticity of religious knowledge that al-Ghazālī pursued through rational deductions for much of his life bore fruit after his illness and major mystical experience. 33The reflections of al-Ghazālī's renewal are presented in his magnum opus called Ih .yā fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humbl servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a s disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a po experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperit health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets a exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potentia propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is under primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bi

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconc divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point fo discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine name attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). 17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which h suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various group theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncomprom form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as w the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" a God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite an Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed th that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizi importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance wit attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, th responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesse disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that ill and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that s significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the t 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the for dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comp study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (John pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfso Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).

of 13
ring in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ʾarite school of thought.ians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have is laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a refore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever is then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has ll His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in ns is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that bn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted e employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a m Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human uisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely e, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22ging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of e theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza e opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating nerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing. 23al perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the f existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from wed as a negative entity. 24An example of the ontological good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent ntly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn ), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil g or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be lysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil n suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this est in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, ed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. 26lite's view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology (Wolfson 1976).bn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin ul ūm al-din ("The Revival of the Religious Sciences"), composed during the next decade of his life.In this major work, al-Ghazālī illustrated through a highly detailed elucidation of personal religious experiences ways by which a profound inner life may be integrated with sound theological doctrines. 34he reflection of this worldview and much of what may be called Ghazālian theodicy is encapsulated in his famous dictum of the best of all possible worlds: "There is not in possibility anything more wonderful than what is" (laysa fi'l-imkān abda R PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 y of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included ering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite e Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, e birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a werful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever ied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has od who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with ho asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in n to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that lim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted f justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue ances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a Him to be just.21 nalysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human e doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely cts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 lim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza 79), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating e, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing.23 uslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the l understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is sitive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from d as such is viewed as a negative entity.24 An example of the ontological what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent hers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn vicenna (d.1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā ed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil which is non-being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be ivation.In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil g cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe mount of evil.25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this proach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, i, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to God's will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant."14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a positive experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan.15  The Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible." 16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and the Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18e Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparative study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008,  pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
5 of 13 plan.The notion of suffering, which included ontinued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite ustice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ught.justice applies only to human beings who have g the idea of justice to God, however, will put a bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever t all harm encountered by man is fair as it has e Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with bjected to the same rules of justice but that, in ncompromising for God.It is worth noting that es, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted od and man in the same manner: man, by virtue God, however, is just due to His perfection-a ians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought to reconcile God's omnipotence with human adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely e for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 ite branch of Islam-through the influence of ined in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An s of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating pressors of any wrongdoing.23 notion of good and evil is enclosed within the ) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is istence; evil, on the other hand, stems from ve entity.24  An example of the ontological ay be seen from the works of two prominent e shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā e various forms of evil such as "essential" evil "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be luded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil hat the total amount of good in the universe the other hand, extensively developed this theology with mystical insight.This approach, xistence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26 and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive ul ūm al-din: Kitāb al-tawhīd wa' l-tawakkul, Divine Unity and Trust in God: Everything that God distributes among men such as sustenance, life-span 'ajal', happiness and sadness, weakness and power, faith and unbelief, obedience and apostasy-all of it is unqualifiedly just with no injustice in it, true with no wrong infecting it.Indeed, all this happens according to a necessary and true order, according to what is appropriate as it is appropriate and in the measure that is proper to it; nor is anything more fitting, more perfect, and more attractive within the realm of possibility.For if something was to exist and remind one of the sheer omnipotence of God and not of the good things accomplished by His action, it would be miserliness that utterly contradicts God's generosity and injustice contrary to divine justice.And if God were not omnipotent, He would be impotent, thereby contradicting the nature of divinity. 35though a critical analysis of al-Ghazālī's statement is beyond the scope of this paper, it should be mentioned that he received much criticism from his opponents since taking this position-it is not possible for God to create a better world-is in conflict with the Ash Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job's incomparable sin will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction an Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14cording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to G servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was go experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan.
The Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and t health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so muc exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is abl propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of J primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought ( divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free w discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its tea attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine attr of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the bro suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialog theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: H the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns ab God, the debate developed further to question the validity of hum deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of op to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an The Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalist that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for hum importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld th attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?A disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites respo and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" t significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be t 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reas study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is bey excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance arite theological teachings relating to God's omnipotence. 36However, it must be pointed out that the statement is embedded within a broader context of tawakkul, "trust in God," which is treated in the Qur'an extensively.In fact, Al-Wakīl, the trustee, is one of the divine attributes that the Qur'an references when it characterizes true believers, that is, those who hold full trust in God.This concept is also discussed by al-Ghazālī in his book called The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Names of God, 'al-Mags .ad al-asnā fī sharh .ma 8, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 entality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included ed suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite s. 19 The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, ally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.rding to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have ated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a n all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever 20 Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has d by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with zilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in bligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that nt Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted ement of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue ust, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a equires Him to be just.21 e final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought asized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human ility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely ertain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts.22 ly, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of lement in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza ī (d.1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating ānī asmā Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job's incompa will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affl Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes J fortune, he continually attributed the source of his bless servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similar disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair The Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that tr health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan exempt; it is through various experiences in life that ma propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Develo
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological t divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of huma discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain di of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a t The discourse presents itself at the core of the theologi theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipote form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world i the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious co God, the debate developed further to question the validity deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsib judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crys Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a diverge to win the argument according to their understanding of th The Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the r that God creates human acts that include evil and advocate importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They u attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the dir view was challenged by raising questions such as: If G responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and di disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazil and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seem Allāh al-h .usnā', where he provides a comprehensive discussion of the divine attribute of Al-Wakīl, and describes to his audience how God, in His essence, deserves to have matters entrusted to Him. 37 Therefore, while certain elements of a classical theodicy are articulated in al-Ghazālī's maxim of "the best of all possible worlds," one may infer that his objective was to provide practical guidelines to reach a high level of trust in God despite the apparent imperfections of the world.Furthermore, prior 31 For example, Quran, 2:216, " . . .you may dislike something although it is good for you, or like something although it is bad for you: God knows and you don't." 32For a comprehensive study on al-Ghazālī's thoughts, see Frank Griffel, Al-Ghazālī's Philosophical Theology (Griffel 2009).
to making the aforementioned statement about the perfectness of the world, al-Ghazālī engages in an in-depth discussion on the divine attributes of "wisdom" and "will" to highlight their connection, as well as the importance of viewing the world as the most excellent work of the Creator.From the Ghazālian perspective, the signs of God's will and wisdom are plentifully evident throughout His creation.Consequently, in order to fully trust in God that this world-including all of its seeming deficiencies-is the best of all possible worlds, one must be able to genuinely believe that the creation of the universe is planned and premeditated according to God's will and wisdom.It should also be mentioned that this level of trust, tawakkul, is one of the highest stations in the mystic path and plays a significant role in man's spiritual development.
As it may be inferred from the above discussion, al-Ghazālī's theodicy is established on a strong relationship between man and God and the need to reach an elevated level of trust in God in the face of the world's imperfections, adversities, and suffering.Nevertheless, it is in the teachings of Jalāl al-Dīn R ūmī, one of the most prominent thinkers of Islam as well as a mystic and Sufi poet, where the comprehensive elucidations of the constructive aspects of hardship and suffering in man's spiritual development come to light. 38

Evil from the Muslim Mystical Perspective: Jalāl al-Dīn R ūmī
The mystical dimension of Islam, similar to other forms of religious mysticism discussed in Perennial Philosophy, 39 deals with the esoteric teachings of Islam and is traditionally represented by Sufism.Although the development of Sufism may be traced back to a century after the death of prophet Muhammad, the roots of its teachings go back to the Qur'an and the Sunna (normative behavior) of the prophet where contemplating on the spiritual realities of the universe is highly encouraged.That the external (z .āhir) practices of Islam should guide to insight and inner realities (bāt .in) may be understood from the Qur'an where God is presented as both the Outward (al-z .āhir) and the Inward (al-bāt .in). 40 Although the focus of Sufism is on the esoteric path (tarīqah) in order to reach a state of union with God, the doctrines and practices of the Sufi path are, nevertheless, founded on the exoteric framework specified in Islamic law (sharī'ah). 41ne of the most influential Sufis of Islam is Jalāl al-Dīn R ūmī (1207-1273) who is known in the West for his mystical poetry.R ūmī was born in Balkh, the Persian province of Khorāsān, and received a high level of education under his father who was a distinguished jurisprudent and Sufi, as well as a formal trainee to the mastery level in Sufism from one of the most well-known Sufi masters of the time, Burhān al-Din Tirmidhī.Being educated in the traditional religious sciences in addition to Sufism gained him widespread recognition as a religious scholar and influential teacher in both exoteric and esoteric teachings of Islam.In Shafiei Kadkani's opinion, R ūmī is considered as one of the greatest intellectuals of the world mainly because of his extraordinary ability to engage with the mystical interpretation of some of the most difficult theological concepts, as well as their exposition in a poetic and inspirational language. 42Although R ūmī's mystical elucidations are presented in much of his work, it is, however, his magnum opus, the Mathnawī that illuminates the mystical elements of the Qur'anic teachings, and is regarded as an esoteric commentary of the Qur'an. 43In what follows, I will 38 It is important to note that al-Ghazālī's mystical teachings have greatly influenced R ūmī's worldview.However, while the former emphasized more on God's majesty, the latter established his teachings more on the notion of God's love.For more on the mystical views of al-Ghazālī and R ūmī, see (Soroush 1379, pp.33-37). 39Perennial Philosophy takes a universal approach in explaining the teachings of world religions, and brings to light a shared mystical vision among them.Viewed from this perspective, world religions and spiritual traditions, despite their cultural and historical differences, promote a deep understanding of the transcendent element, the Reality, which exists in the universe.For more on this, see (Huxley 2009, p. vii). 40Qur'an: 57:3, "He is the First and the Last; the Outer and the Inner: He has the knowledge of all things." 41For a comprehensive discussion about Islamic mysticism, see (Schimmel 1975).Also, see (Nasr 1987). 42See (Shafiei Kadkani 1388, p. 2). 43For more on the influence of the Qur'an in shaping Rumi's worldview, see (Zarrinkub 1388, p. 342).attempt to summarize R ūmī's expositions on the notion of evil and human suffering as presented in the Mathnawī.
In R ūmī's worldview, the multiplicity that exists in this world is the effect of the manifestation of God's names (asmā health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible." 16

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point for this discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine names and attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). 17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which human suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam.
The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups.The theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncompromising form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as well as the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" acts by God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept that is deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as divine judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite and the Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious effort to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed the idea that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizing the importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice.This view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesses and disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that serve a significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the theory 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A comparative study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008,  pp.51-82).
18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).
) and attributes (sifāt) that aim to reveal His creative power.In other words, while the form (s .ūrat) of the created entities is varied, their meaning (ma The Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials a health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Developme
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thoug divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human fre discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The reconciliation of certain divine of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-th suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theod The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological d theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence i form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is Go the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concern God, the debate developed further to question the validity of deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystalli Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence o to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qu The Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the ration that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They uphe attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct re view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disaste disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites r and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "goo significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the B dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam i excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Gla pp.51-82).See (Johns 2003, pp.50-51).17 For more on this see Abdol Rahman Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimah of I 18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).nā), nevertheless, is indicative of One Reality. 44R ūmī further expands the distinction between form and meaning to demonstrate that while man appears to be a being among other beings in the universe, the universe is, in fact, in man: " . . . in form thou art the microcosm, in reality thou art the macrocosm." 45He also identifies man as the "fruit" of creation and uses the analogy of a tree to describe this highly elevated status: "The only reason that the gardener plants a tree is for the sake of the fruit.Man is the goal of the creation; therefore, he is the last creature that comes into existence; yet, in reality, he is the first." 46he creation of Adam, as the exemplar of humankind in his ultimate closeness to God, is postulated at the center of R ūmī's teachings as it relates to the positive impact of trials and tribulations in man's spiritual development.According to R ūmī, the Qur'anic notion of the "knowledge of the names," 47 taught to Adam upon his creation, reveals that humankind has the capacity to become the perfect mirror where God's names and attributes may be manifested.The knowledge of the names, R ūmī informs us, is not the external names of the created beings; rather, it is the mysteries and the inner meanings of the various elements within the creation of the cosmos.Man's responsibility is to live in accordance with his inner nature (fitra) and recognize that actualization of his potential is doable by his own volition, as well as the ability to differentiate between "form" and "meaning": to search for the truth behind the veils.
From the R ūmīan perspective, the most important phase in man's spiritual development is to get to know one's self, self-knowledge (ma'rifat al-nafs), and ultimately to recognize that he has been separated from his original Source (as .l).By employing the analogy of a "reed," R ūmī explicates that this separation is the primary cause for humankind's unhappiness in this life. 48Man tends to forget his divine origin and occupies himself with the worldly attainments; therefore, in order to awaken him from the state of negligence, he will be faced with adversities and sufferings.In other words, trials and tribulations are necessary as they assist man in self-purification (tazkiyat al-nafs), freeing him from material attachments and the inclinations of his ego.R ūmī expounds upon prophet Joseph's experience to describe the constructiveness of trials; Joseph's enslavement, as difficult as it was, freed him from slavery to other creatures so that he could become God's slave alone. 49Furthermore, in R ūmī's scheme, when a person is faced with a negative balā, for example, a serious illness, his attitude and response towards his condition are of primary importance.The person whose goal in life is to satisfy the inclinations of his animal self will complain and bring to question the justice of God.On the other hand, a person whose goal is to purify the self (nafs), to go up the spiritual ladder, will find a deeper meaning in learning the lessons hidden within this experience. 50s it was alluded to previously, from the Qur'anic perspective, man's entire life on earth, in "good" (khayr) and "bad" (sharr), is viewed as a trial and a test; the purpose is to grant him the opportunity to flourish his inner potential by exercising freedom of choice (ı ˛khtiār) and to strive to find ways to return to his source.As R ūmī explains, mankind has the tendency to forget God in two situations: when he is granted wealth and during good health.
Between God and His servant are just two veils and all other veils manifest out of these: they are health and wealth.The man who is well in body says, 'Where is God?I do not know and I do not see.'As soon as pain afflicts him he begins to say, 'O God! O God!', communing and conversing with God.So you see that health was his veil and God was hidden under that pain.As much as man has wealth and resources, he procures the means to gratify his desires and is preoccupied during the night and day with that.The moment indigence appears, his ego is weakened and he goes round about God. 51R ūmī further invites his reader to ponder about times of afflictions when his prayer in ending the suffering appears not to have been granted by God, and to recognize and appreciate that this is more beneficial for him: the longer the duration of the hardship, the longer he remains in this state of immanence to God. 52 Also, as Chittick observes, in R ūmī's view, "if a person tries to flee from suffering through various stratagems, he is, in fact, fleeing God.The only way to flee from suffering is to seek refuge from one's own ego with God." 53 Moreover, another positive impact of adversity and sorrow is that it transforms and purifies human character.
When someone beats a rug with a stick, he is not beating the rug; his aim is to get rid of the dust.Your inward is full of dust from the veil of I-ness and that dust will not leave all at once. 54nally, before closing the discussion on R ūmī's teachings, it should be pointed out that in his elucidations on the fruitfulness of hardships in man's life, R ūmī also provides practical guidelines that can be put to practice when one is faced with adversities.In an effort to benefit from spiritual growth, as well as overcome suffering without going into despair, R ūmī explicates two critical aspects of being a Muslim, namely, the Qur'anic virtues of patience (s .abr) and trust in God (tawakkul).As trusting God is at the core of al-Ghazālī's teachings and has already been discussed in conjunction with the "best of all possible world" statement, we will now turn to a brief discussion on the concept of patience from the R ūmīan perspective.
In his explications of man's condition on this earth, R ūmī frequently sheds light on the virtue of patience.Nevertheless, it is in the parable of the "chickpea," one of the most well-known stories of the Mathnawī, where the importance of patience in the face of suffering fully comes to light.The story is about a fictional dialogue between a housewife and a chickpea that is being cooked as part of a meal.Similar to man at the time of his encounter with affliction, the chickpea complains to the housewife for cooking it in boiling water and it tries to escape by constantly jumping out of the pot.Finally, on realizing that it is not able to relieve itself from its misery, it desperately pleads with the housewife to take it out of the boiling water.The housewife then comes into a conversation to console the chickpea and help it learn that patiently enduring suffering is needed for its growth.
At the time of being boiled, the chickpea comes up continually to the top of the pot and raises a hundred cries, Saying, 'Why are you setting the fire on me?Since you bought me, how are you turning me upside down?'The housewife goes on hitting it with the ladle.'No!' says she: 'boil nicely and don't jump away from the one who makes the fire.'I do not boil you because you are hateful to me; nay, 'tis that you may get taste; this affliction of yours is not on account of you being despised.'Continue, O chickpea, to boil in tribulation, that neither existence nor self may remain 51 See (Rumi 2004, p. 240). 52See (Rumi 1926, VI:4222-26). 53See (Chittick 1983, p. 238). 54See (Rumi 1379).
to thee.The chickpea said, 'since it is so, O lady, I will gladly boil: give me help in verity!In this boiling thou art, as it were, my architect: smite me with the skimming-spoon, for thou smites very delightfully.' 55capitulating R ūmī's thought as presented in the final verse of the chickpea story, when man journeys in the mystic path and is able to attain the state of inner contentment (rizā) during times of suffering, he has truly submitted to the will of God-has become a Muslim.Consequently, in patiently enduring suffering, as well as trusting in God and the overall goodness of His creation, man will be able to overcome the anguish and move up the spiritual ladder to reach nearness with God.It should also be mentioned that in R ūmī's mystical path, love of God plays a significant role in the process of man's spiritual growth.As man is reminded of his separation from his Source (as .l), the love of the Beloved is the means by which he will be able to endure the most difficult times, knowing that through God's love he has the potential to reach the elevated state of rizā-what the Qur'an refers to as the highest state of tranquility ('nafs mut .ma Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW when afflicted with illness and adversity. 13Job's incomparable sincerity and submission to will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reason Qur'an portrays him as "an excellent servant." 14ccording to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enor fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble servant who lacked ownership of his belongings.Similarly, when God tested him with a se disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test-a po experience-and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan. 15he Qur'anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests-whether in prosperit health or illness and hardship-are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets a exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potentia propagate his mission on this earth.As John notes, "the story of Job in the Qur'an is under primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bib

Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development
One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconci divine attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will.The departure point fo discourse was the Qur'an and the diverse interpretations of its teachings on the divine name attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā). 17The reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the a of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will-the broader frame with which h suffering was enclosed-was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam The discourse presents itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various group theologians who advocated for the attribute of omnipotence in its absolute and uncomprom form were of the opinion that the only agent in this world is God: He creates His own acts as w the acts of all human beings.As this view raised serious concerns about the creation of "evil" a God, the debate developed further to question the validity of human free will-the concept t deeply rooted in the Quran as it relates to man's responsibility and accountability, as well as d judgment and reward and punishment.The dialogue crystallized between the Muʿtazilite an Ashʿarite, the two main schools of thought, with a divergence of opinion; both made a serious to win the argument according to their understanding of the Qur'an. 18he Muʿtazilite school of thought, also known as the rationalists, categorically opposed th that God creates human acts that include evil and advocated for human free will by emphasizin importance of the divine attribute of justice (ʿadl).They upheld that God, in accordance wit attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man's freedom of choice view was challenged by raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, th responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters?And if God wills for illnesse disasters in human life, how can He be just?The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illn and disasters, while may appear as "evil", are in actuality "good" that God creates and that s significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan.This seems to be the first appearance of the t 13The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the for dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings.A compa study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper.excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (John pp.51-82).
inna')-where man is pleased with his Lord. 56

Conclusions
The notion of evil and human suffering is not portrayed in the Islamic revelation as a "problem" to be resolved but rather as part of the human experience.Therefore, since the Qur'an does not engage its readers in abstract ideas and theological discussions about evil, the formulation of a classical theodicy is not presented.Most of the Qur'anic verses on adversity and suffering suggest that human beings, including prophets, will be tested by difficult times.The ontological nature of evil is referred to as nonexistence and privation of good by Muslim philosophers, while the theologians attribute evil to man's conduct.The Muslim mystical literature as presented in the teachings of R ūmī demonstrates that trials in adversities are necessary to remove man from the state of negligence in order for him to realize his divine source and to choose to set forth on a spiritual journey.In this mystic path, exercising patience, trusting God, as well as loving God, are essential in assisting man reach the state of tranquility.Along the path, man, as the fruit of the creation, will be able to actualize the potentialities of his inner nature and purify his soul to become a perfect mirror in manifesting God's names and attributes.
of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite theologians. 19The Muʿtazilite's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.
According to Ashʾarite theologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have been obligated to act according to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever He does. 20Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a trait that requires Him to be just. 21n the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22onversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An when afflicted with illness and ad will in both health and prosperit Qur'an portrays him as "an excelle According to Muslim exeges fortune, he continually attributed servant who lacked ownership of disease, he exercised patience a experience-and ascribed any neg The Qur'anic narrative about health or illness and hardship-ar exempt; it is through various exp propagate his mission on this ear primarily as a reward narrative wi

Concept of Evil: Theological an
One of the earliest problems divine attribute of omnipotence w discourse was the Qur'an and the attributes (asmāʾ al-ḥusnā).17 The re of an all-powerful God, with the suffering was enclosed-was the f The discourse presents itself a theologians who advocated for th form were of the opinion that the o the acts of all human beings.As th God, the debate developed furthe deeply rooted in the Quran as it re judgment and reward and punish Ashʿarite, the two main schools of to win the argument according to The Muʿtazilite school of thou that God creates human acts that i importance of the divine attribute attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create e view was challenged by raising responsible for human suffering ca disasters in human life, how can H and disasters, while may appear a suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included ildren and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite 's firm stress on God's justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, e Ashʾarite school of thought.eologians, God's law of justice applies only to human beings who have g to His laws.Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a or; therefore, God is not bound by His own laws.He is just in whatever ing, this then means that all harm encountered by man is fair as it has st in all His creation.The Ashʾarite thinkers were in sharp conflict with that not only is God subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in st means is eternal and uncompromising for God.It is worth noting that her, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challenged these views and asserted y not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue igher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection-a ust. 21stream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought reates all acts.In order to reconcile God's omnipotence with human f acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely erefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22s belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam-through the influence of tazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites.An rved from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza s of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating n exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing. 23ophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the ing of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).Briefly put, good is that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from is viewed as a negative entity. 24An example of the ontological itutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent nificantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn 1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā icy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as "essential" evil -being or privation, and "accidental" evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be is analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe vil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this interest in combining theology with mystical insight.This approach, nsformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. 26ʿtazilite's view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive ility in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology 0).f Kalam (Wolfson 1976)., see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes sition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976).-51).ects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin 65-68).icy, see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000).a', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).
15 See Abubakr `17 s of evil such as "essential" evil il (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be the non-essential/accidental evil ount of good in the universe d, extensively developed this ystical insight.This approach, rtains to Islamic metaphysics.26 tazilite theology-remained in disagreement with the Ash 8, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 entality of human suffering in the divine plan.The notion of suffering, which included d suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Muʿtazilite s. 19 The statement presents itself in Book 35 of the Ih .yā 26ussion on the Muʿtazilite's view on pain and suffering see(Heemskerk 2000).For an extensive tion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology mimmā kān).