A Study of the Early-Stage Translations of Foxing 佛 性 in Chinese Buddhism: The Da Banniepan Jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 Trans. Dharmaks.ema and the Da Fangdeng Rulaizang Jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 Trans. Buddhabhadra

: The Da fangdeng rulaizang jing 大 方 等如 來 藏 經 (Skt. Tath¯agatagarbha-s¯utra ), translated by Buddhabhadra 佛 陀 跋 陀 羅 (358–429) is one of the early Chinese Buddhist canon texts where the term foxing 佛 性 (Jp. bussh¯o ; Buddha-nature) is clearly used to express Buddha-nature. However, the term foxing cannot be conﬁrmed in other extant translations of the Tath¯agatagarbha-s¯utra . Another early text in the Chinese Buddhist canon, the Da banniepan jing 大 般 涅 槃 經 (Skt. Mah¯aparinirv¯an.a-mah¯as¯utra ), translated by Dharmaks . ema 曇 無 讖 (385?–433), also used the term foxing , which cannot be correspondingly conﬁrmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of this scripture. Some signiﬁcant differences in foxing between the Sanskrit fragments and Dharmaks.ema’s translation of this sutra belong to the ﬁrst twelve fascicles of Dharmaks.ema’s translation completed under his collaborators’ support when he had not mastered the Chinese language. It is very likely that Faxian 法 顯 (337–422) translated a version of the Mah¯aparinirv¯an.a-mah¯as¯utra that featured buddhadh¯atu as foxing . Buddhabhadra, in the same period, translated a version of the Tath¯agatagarbha-s¯utra , in which he favoured the term foxing over a literal translation of the Sanskrit. As another contemporary monk with these two, Dharmaks.ema translated the Mah¯aparinirv¯an.a-mah¯as¯utra , going further than Faxian by using the term foxing regularly. These texts inﬂuenced the Dilun monastic tradition 地 論 宗 . Among these, the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations played the most signiﬁcant role, inﬂuencing the whole of the Chinese and even East Asian Buddhist thought.


Introduction
In recent years, discussions in Buddhist scholarship have focused on the concept of "Buddha-nature" within all sentient beings, whether or not this concept is compatible with classical Buddhist teachings such as no-abiding-self or even those doctrines rooted in the Nikāyas/Āgamas. This controversy is not only relevant to East Asian Buddhism but also to the roots of this tradition in the Indian Mahāyāna sutras, which deploy the concept of tathāgatagarbha (Buddha-embryo or Buddha-womb). 1 Moreover, in some cases, the term tathāgatagarbha is also used to describe sentient beings themselves (Skt. sarvasattvās tathāgatagarbhāh . ; all sentient beings are those who contain tathāgata). As is widely known, in the history of East Asian Buddhism, tathāgatagarbha (Chin. rulaizang如來藏) was sometimes considered a synonym of foxing佛性 (Jp. busshō; Buddha-nature). 2 The relationship between these two terms was ambiguous in Chinese Buddhism because some monks and schools, such as the Nirvāna tradition (Chin. Niepan zong涅槃宗), declared that foxing is the same as rulaizang. 3 Therefore, probing the early cases where the classical Chinese term foxing appeared in China is significant to clarifying the origin and development of these two concepts in East Asian Buddhism. Two of the early translators who translated some terms as foxing were Buddhabhadra佛 陀跋陀羅 (358-429) and . Both of them worked on their In other words, some fascicles or sections of the forty-fascicle Da banniepan jing were not translated by Dharmaks . ema. Feng Chengjun馮承鈞 states that Dharmaks . ema used the Sanskrit text collected by Zhimeng智猛 (?-452), who did not engage in translating. 23 In contrast, Chen Jinhua陳金華 objects to Feng's conclusion. Chen asserts that Zhimeng not only brought the Sanskrit text of the Da banniepan jing to China but also participated in the translation. 24 Hence, it is very likely that the translators of the Da banniepan jing were not only Dharmaks . ema but included other people or groups, in addition to even some other materials or sources. 25 Therefore, I intend to discuss the classical Chinese term foxing based on the Da banniepan jing attributed to Dharmaks . ema in the framework of Chinese Buddhism. In addition, as a background to contemporary translation in China, the term foxing as found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing大方等如來藏經 [The Sutra of the Tathāgatagarbha] translated by  is also the object of my discussion. In other words, as these two texts were translated into classical Chinese during almost the same and early period, I will talk of the use of the term foxing found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing at first and then move to the discussion on this topic in the Da banniepan jing. 26 Finally, this study also slightly mentions the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大方等無想經 [Skt. Mahāmeghasūtra; T387] by Dharmaks . ema and the renderings by  from roughly the same time.
According to the Fozu tongji佛祖統紀 [Entire Records of the Buddhas and the Ancestors], both Dharmaks . ema and Buddhabhadra were engaged in the translation works in China during almost the same era.
In the fourth year of Yixi義熙, Huiyuan慧遠 was discontented with the uncompleted translations in Chinese Buddhism, the lack of meditation, and the incomplete canons of precept. He sent his disciples such as Zhifaling支法領 to India to collect more Sanskrit Buddhist texts. They met Buddhabhadra in India and asked him to return to China together. In the eighth year of Yixi, Dharmaks . ema moved to Guzang姑臧. Juqu Mengxun沮渠蒙 遜, the King of the Northern Liang, asked Dharmaks . ema to stay there and translate the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra into the Da banniepan jing, which has forty fascicles. In the ninth year of Yixi, Buddhabhadra (Chin. Juexian覺賢), a monk from the Kapilavastu area, went to Lushan廬山 mountain and stayed there. Huiyuan asked Buddhabhadra to translate some texts of meditation. That is to say, Huiyuan's 慧遠 (334-416) disciples met Buddhabhadra in about 408. In 412, Dharmaks . ema launched the translation of the Da banniepan jing in the Northern Liang. In 413, in China and moved to Lushan Mountain to continue his translation works. Evidently, the periods of Dharmaks . ema and Buddhabhadra acting in China overlapped. Therefore, in my opinion, it is very likely that they had similar circumstances from 410, such as mutual assistants in China and the same Chinese texts that had been translated. 28 On the contrary, to say the least of it, even if these two translators did not actually share many assistants and they did not directly influence each other, we cannot deny that they were engaged in the translation works in China during the same era, a very early period for the appearance of the term foxing. For this reason, it is inevitable to discuss not only Dharmaks . ema's translations but also those by some other translators, such as Buddhabhadra, at the beginning of the fifth century. 29 As has been mentioned above, there is hardly any research discussing both the translations of Dharmaks . ema and Buddhabhadra to probe the origin of the term foxing as a Chinese term and its context in Chinese translation in the early fifth century, especially the lack of comparison with relevant Sanskrit fragments in the context of Chinese Buddhism remains. This is also one of the purposes of this article.
The Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra is a relatively short scripture that represents the point of a number of works in Indian Buddhism concentrating on the idea that all sentient beings are tathāgatagarbha. According to Michael Zimmermann, the hitherto accepted assumption that the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing reflects an Indian transmission, which has not undergone the textual alterations of later centuries, is only partly true because the source of the citations in the Ratnagotravibhāga [Chin. Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun究竟一乘寶性論; Treatise of the Jewel-nature of Ultimate Single Vehicle], aśāstra which was written at least fifty years before Buddhabhadra translated Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra into the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing, has turned out to be the recension represented in the Tibetan tradition. 35 I agree with this view. That is to say, although it is possible that there are some differences between the underlying Sanskrit text of the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and that of the Tibetan translation, we should not consider that the original Sanskrit text of the extant Tibetan translation had been substantially amended compared with that of the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing. Thus, in my opinion, it is still effective to investigate the unique way and purpose of Buddhabhadra through comparing his translation with the Tibetan text, especially about the Chinese term foxing, which appears only in Buddhabhadra's translation.
As mentioned above, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing translated by Buddhabhadra is a text early in the known literary history of the term foxing. At the beginning of this chapter, the following paragraph must be discussed prior to others.
In the same way, sons of good family, I see with my buddha-vision that all sentient beings, within the afflictions of desire, hostility and delusion, possess the knowledge, vision and body of a tathāgata sitting cross-legged, dignified and motionless. Sons of good family, all sentient beings, although situated in many kinds of rebirth, in the midst of their afflictions possess the tathāgatagarbha, always permanent and undefiled, replete with excellent characteristics no different to my own. Sons of good family, for example, it is like this, a person with divine-vision/eye (Skt. divyacaks . us; Chin. tianyan 天眼) inspects calyxes and find that the tathāgata-body within the flowers can be revealed if the drooped petals had been moved away. In the same way, sons of good family, the Buddha, seeing all sentient beings to already be tathāgatagarbha, desiring to cause this to be revealed, explains the dharma, destroying their defilements and manifesting their buddha-nature. Sons of good family, the true nature (Skt. dharmatā; Chin. faer法爾) of all buddhas is this: whether or not buddhas appear in the world, in all living beings the store [or womb] of a tathāgata is at all times present without change.  [inside] are established in the perfection [of the tathāgatas] (ma rig pa'i nyon mongs pa'i sbubs dbye ba'i phyir chos ston te/de sgrub pa'i de bzhin gshegs pa rnams ni yang dag pa nyid du gnas so)." Sons of good family, the essential law (dharmatā) of the dharmas is this 37 : whether or not tathāgatas appear in the world, all these sentient beings at all times contain a tathāgata (tathāgatagarbha). 38 It is notable that in the Tibetan translation, there is a sentence stating "de bzhin gshegs pa rnas ni yan dag pa nyid du gnas so," rather than the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing stating "xianxian foxing顯現佛性 (manifesting Buddha-nature)." In other words, in the Tibetan translation, it is difficult to identify the term corresponding to foxing in this paragraph, while it is very possible that this Tibetan translation is not translating the same Indic text as Buddhabhadra.

如是善男子！我以佛眼觀一切眾生，貪欲恚癡諸煩惱中，有如來智、如來眼、如
A similar example can also be found in the following passage. They [women] do not know it. Therefore, the Tathāgata teaches widely the Dharma for living beings saying: "Sons of good family, do not denigrate yourself! In your own body, you all have the buddha-nature. If you practice diligently and diminish all evil, then you will attain the designations 'bodhisattva' and 'exalted one.' You will guide and save innumerable living beings!" 如彼女人而不覺知，是故如來普為說法，言：善男子！莫自輕鄙，汝等自身皆有 佛性，若勤精進滅眾過惡，則受菩薩及世尊號，化導濟度無量眾生。 39 [Tibetan translation] Then, though the element of a tathāgata has entered into sentient beings and is present within, those sentient beings do not realize [it]. Sons of good family, in order that sentient beings do not despise themselves, the Tathāgata in this [connection] teaches the Dharma with the [following] words: "Sons of good family, apply energy without giving in to despondency! It will happen that one day the tathāgata [who has] entered [and] is present within you will become manifest. (rig kyi bud ag khyed bdag nyid sro shi bar ma byed par khyed brtson 'grus brtan par gyis shig dang/khyed la de bzhin gshegs pa zhugs pa yod pa dus shig na 'byung bar 'gyur te) Then you will be designated "bodhisattva," rather than "[ordinary] sentient being (sattva)." [And] again in the [next stage you] will be designated "buddha," rather than "bodhisattva "." 40 Here, Buddhabhadra translated "rudeng zishen jie you foxing汝等自身皆有佛性 (you all have Buddha-nature)," compared to the statement, "it will happen that one day the Tathāgata who has entered and is present within you will become manifest. Then you will be designated a bodhisattva, rather than ordinary sentient being (sattva)" in the Tibetan translation. We can only find tathāgata and sattva in the Tibetan translation, rather than a proper term matching the Chinese term foxing.
Similarly, the following passage is also typical of the difference between these two translations.
In the same way, with the vision of a Sugata (buddha) I can see that although living beings are covered over by defilements, their tathāgata-nature is indestructible. I teach the Dharma with appropriate means in order to let living beings attain buddhahood. Because their buddha-nature has been covered by defilements, I intend to remove the defilements to make their buddha-nature purified rapidly. The term foxing佛性 appears in Buddhabhadra's translation again. If we check the Tibetan translation, the corresponding term for the Tibetan is likely to be "prakr . ti (intrinsic nature)." There does not seem to be a term corresponding to at least the Chinese character fo佛. 43 In particular, among Chinese renderings of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra, the classical Chinese term foxing can only be found in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing, which was translated by Buddhabhadra. It is difficult to accurately confirm the relevant term for foxing or corresponding Tibetan terms, such as sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings, in both Amoghavajra's classical Chinese and the Tibetan translation. Similarly, as mentioned above, there are various terms related to the Chinese term rulaizang in the Tibetan translation, rather than a fixed term.

煩惱淤泥中，如來性不壞。
As is argued by Zimmermann (2002) and some other scholars, since it seems that Buddhabhadra has translated a different recension of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra, the fact that its content is different should not surprise us. I also concur with this opinion. The reason for discussing the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing by Buddhabhadra here is to reconsider the importance of this rendering for the history of the term foxing and Buddha-nature thought in Chinese Buddhism-that is, either the different Sanskrit recension of the Tathāgatagarbhasūtra, which was read and used by Buddhabhadra, or Buddhabhadra's own creation influenced Chinese Buddhist thought at an early stage. This point was, to my knowledge, seldom emphasized by scholars in East Asian Buddhist studies.
To summarize, although a lack of clarity about Buddhabhadra's reasoning and motivation remains, as an early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing used the term foxing, which cannot be confirmed in other extant translations of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra.

Foxing佛性 in the Da banniepan jing大般涅槃經 (Skt. Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra) Translated by Dharmaks . ema
The universality of emptiness (śūnyatā) and the doctrines of no-abiding-self (anātman) and impermanence (anitya) are some basic Buddhist teachings. Conversely, one still finds texts such as theŚrīmālādevī-sūtra and the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra that use terms such as atman. 44 This is, in a sense, one of the most basic issues in Buddhist Studies. 45 This section focusses on which term the translators used to express the meaning such asātman in the Chinese translation of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra.
Before discussing Dharmaks . ema's translation, Faxian's rendering should be mentioned first. Faxian's version seems to be a short Chinese translation of the Mahāparinirvān . amahāsūtra if we merely read the Chinese translations, but it is better understood to be a Chinese translation of a shorter version of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. Following Habata, the term sangs rgyas kyi khams, which is a translation of buddhadhātu in the Tibetan rendering, is found 23 times in the Tibetan version of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. This number is relatively small because we find many instances of foxing in the Chinese translations. Among these 23 references, Dharmaks . ema translates 17 instances of foxing, compared to only 8 of foxing in Faxian's rendering. Moreover, there is no example where Faxian translates sangs rgyas kyi khams as foxing but Dharmaks . ema does not. 46 For this reason, I will focus on Dharmaks . ema's rendering in this section.
Takasaki Jikidō notes that the underlying term of the foxing in the Da banniepan jing, translated by Dharmaks . ema, refers to the nature of tathāgata (Chin. rulai如來). 47 Both Shimoda Masahiro下田正弘 and Michael Radich state that in the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, a strong connection exists between buddhadhātu (Buddha-nature) and tathāgatagarbha (the embryo of Buddha), related to stūpa (relic-chamber). 48 Kanō Kazuo加納和雄 also asserts that both buddhadhātu and tathāgatagarbha refer to the content of a stūpa. Furthermore, two kinds of meaning in dhātu, containing both body and relics, are present. Beings possess buddhadhātu, understood as a Buddha's relic, which evokes the interior of a stūpa at which a relic generally sat. 49 Saliently, the term buddhadhātu (Chin. foxing), regarded as the most significant term in the Da banniepan jing (Skt. Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra), cannot be found in the extant Sanskrit fragments of this scripture. 50 Buddhadhātu, as noted by Takasaki and Radich, in the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, is considered a synonym of tathāgatagarbha. Alternatively, strictly speaking, tathāgatagarbha may be a way of referring to the presence of buddhadhātu. Meanwhile, we should not ignore the cases where the Chinese term foxing is not explained by referring to tathāgatagarbha. 51 An interesting fact appears: the classical Chinese term foxing, emphasized in various classical Chinese translations of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, cannot be found in the existing Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. 52 Therefore, the statement that in the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, a strong connection existing between Buddha-nature and tathāgatagarbha, which was pointed out by Shimoda and Radich, is mainly based on the Tibetan and Chinese translations of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. In this case, it is meaningful to reconsider the original terms and the reasons they were translated into the Chinese term foxing by these translators, including  quotes the following in the Bhāvanākrama. Thus, the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra states the following.Śrāvakas fail to see the lineage (rigs; gotra) of tathāgata in themselves because their meditation (samādhi) is strong, compared to their weak wisdom. Bodhisattvas can merely see an undefined lineage of tathāgata because their wisdom is strong, compared to their weak samādhi. Tathāgata can see all of these because he possesses both meditation and wisdom.

十住菩薩智慧力多，三昧力少。是故不得明見佛性。声聞縁覚三昧力多，智慧力 少。以是因縁不見佛性。諸佛世尊定慧等故，明見佛性，了了無礙。 54
Commenting on this, Yoshimura Shūki芳村修基 contends that Kamalaśīla's quote corresponds to the thirty-first fascicle of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema. 55 Except for small differences in their depictions of theśrāvaka and bodhisattva, these two translations correspond with each other very well. Matsuda denied the possibility that Kamalaśīla knew about the existence of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema. 56 If so, Kamalaśīla merely employed the Sanskrit text and Tibetan translations to quote the sentence thatśrāvakas fail to see the lineage (rigs; gotra) of tathāgata. Conversely, the Da banniepan jing, translated by Dharmaks . ema, clearly states thatśrāvakas and bodhisattvas cannot see foxing (Buddha-nature). Hence, the lineage (gotra) found in this Tibetan quote was translated as foxing in the Da banniepan jing. 57 Some similar cases appear in the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun究竟一乘寶性論 [Skt. Ratnagotravibhāga]; namely, gotra was translated as zhenru foxing真如佛性 (Buddha-nature in thusness).
In summary, all beings, according to the Buddha, are always tathāgatagarbha according to three meanings: the tathāgata's dharmakāya (Dharma-body) is omnipresent in all beings; there is no difference in the tathāgata's tathatā (thusness); and the gotra of tathāgata (the cause for Buddhahood) exists.

者，如來法身遍在一切諸眾生身，偈言佛法身遍滿故。二者，如來真如無差別， 偈言真如無差別故。三者，一切眾生皆悉實有真如佛性，偈言皆實有佛性故。 59
In the Sanskrit text, the third part of the definition of tathāgatagarbha is tathāgatagotra. In the classical Chinese translation, this term is translated as zhenru foxing真如佛性. Crucially, the three parts of tathāgatagarbha's definition, namely, dharmakāya, tathatā and gotra, have been modified in the classical Chinese translation into: fashen法身・zhenru真如・zhenru foxing真如佛性, respectively. 60 This kind of translation of gotra in the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun 61 , translated by Ratnamati勒那摩提 (6th century CE; ?-508-?), is the same as in the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema. 62 The Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun was translated into classical Chinese nearly a century after the Da banniepan jing. Furthermore, both were translated during the northern Chinese dynasties. For these reasons, the monks of Dilun地 論 tradition were very likely to have been influenced by the terms and concepts of the Da banniepan jing.
On the other hand, due to the edition and research on the Sanskrit texts of the Ratnagotravibhāga and the Laṅkāvatāra-sūtra, it has been clarified that yichanti一闡提 (Skt. icchantika; beings who cannot achieve the buddhahood) is the translation of the Sanskrit term icchantika. Saliently, as Mizutani noted, the term icchantika, which was used in the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra at a very early stage, cannot be found in any surviving Buddhist scripture established prior to the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. 63 In East Asia, numerous monks and scholars have attempted to demonstrate the possibility that icchantika achieve buddhahood. 64 The most important issue, however, is the controversy about gotra and Buddha-nature (Chin. foxing).
As introduced above, Matsuda edited the existent Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, which can be used to further research the classical Chinese translation. In addition, Habata Hiromi edited the extant Sanskrit fragments and provided a new translation in 2019, which is more in-depth. In these Sanskrit fragments, there is one section, as stated below.
Icchantikas do not see (na paśyanti) virtuous deeds (kalyān . akr . ta). They see blame and evil (papa). Virtuous deeds (sukr . ta) mean Bodhi (or enlightenment). 65 Not coming means not approaching. The esoteric (or intended) meaning means what is virtuous (kalyān . a). Who is far away from esoteric deeds (sandhākarma)? Auspicious deeds (bhadrakarma) do not approach the icchantika. Who is far away from a good mind? A good mind does not approach icchantika because they are not wholesome beings due to their arrogant attitudes. What is the basic branch (mūlām . ga)? It means abandoning (or rejecting) this sutra (sūtrapratiks . epa). It is terrible because abandoning (or rejecting) the sutra is frightful. . . . . . . Who does not see (or understand) virtuous deed (kr . ta)? Evil icchantika does not understand virtuous deed. Icchantikas do not see (or understand) virtuous deed until the end of their transmigration. I will summarize these meanings. Therefore, we should take these terrible things seriously because it is of the utmost frightfulness. At the time when all beings, after having become of one mind, will recognize the ultimate enlightenment (anuttarām . sam . myaksam . bodhi); it will be possible for icchantika to recognize Bodhi (enlightenment) at that time. However, icchantikas do not see (or understand) virtuous deed. The people who does not see enlightenment and virtuous deed should understand the fact. Namely, the deed of the Tathāgata will not end (or destroyed) unless all beings involved in transmigration recognize the ultimate enlightenment. At that moment, the Buddha will come to complete final nirvān . a. Along with the final nirvān . a (atyantaparinirvān . a), the Buddha will become changeable and absent, like fire and a lamp. 66  Good man, [regarding icchantikas,] "not seeing" refers to not seeing the buddha-nature. "What is good" is anuttarā samyaksam . bodhi itself. To say "they will not do it" refers to [an icchantika] being unable to approach a good friend who can guide him spiritually. "Only seeing" refers to seeing without good reason. The word "bad" here refers to their repudiation of the well-balanced Mahāyāna sutras. And "this they may do" refers to the fact that icchantikas do say there are no well-balanced [sutras]. The meaning of the verse is simply that icchantikas do not think in a way that advances them toward the pure and good dharma. What is the pure and good dharma? It is nirvān . a itself! To advance toward nirvān . a refers to the capacity to cultivate practices that are wise and good, yet icchantikas have no practices that are wise and good. This is why they are incapable of progressing toward nirvān . a. "On that basis, one should be afraid" refers to repudiating the true-dharma. Who should be frightened? . . . In addition, one may also speak of "not seeing what has been done" in reference to the fact that icchantikas do not admit to themselves the host of bad things they have done. Because the icchantikas are arrogant, even though they often do things that are harmful, while doing them they initially have no sense of fear. This is why icchantikas are unable to attain nirvān . a; they are like monkeys grabbing at the [reflection of the] moon in the water. Good man, if all living beings, however innumerable, were to all at once attain anuttarā samyaksam . bodhi, the tathāgatas would still not see the icchantikas attaining bodhi. This is also the meaning of what I have called "not seeing what has been carried out." Furthermore, not seeing whose deeds were carried out means not seeing that carried out by the Tathagata. The Buddha has expounded the existence of buddha-nature for the benefit of living beings, but icchantikas transmigrate through sam . sāra unable to discern what this is. It is in this sense that I used the phrase "not noticing what has been done by the tathāgatas." Icchantikas will also look at the complete nirvān . a of the Tathāgata and say to themselves, "This truly shows impermanence, nothing more than a lamp going out when its oil is extinguished." 68 The Sanskrit fragment states that icchantikas do not see (or understand) virtuous deeds (kalyān . akr . ta). Since this Sanskrit fragment is very likely later than what Dharmaks . ema would have translated, we cannot know that this Sanskrit was what Dharmaks . ema translated. The only thing I can say here is that Dharmaks . ema translates this as "bu jian zhe wei bu jian foxing不見者謂不見佛性", which differs from that in our surviving Sanskrit fragment, in his classical Chinese rendering, no matter what underlying term or phrase he read. 70 The Sanskrit fragment states "the deed of the Tathāgata will not end (or destroyed) unless all beings involved in transmigration recognize the ultimate enlightenment. At that moment, the Buddha will come to complete final nirvān . a. Along with the final nirvān . a (atyantaparinirvān . a), the Buddha will become changeable and absent, like fire and a lamp." Alternatively, the classical Chinese translation by Dharmaks . ema states that "bu jian shui zhi suozuo不見誰之所作 (not seeing whose deeds were carried out)" means ignoring tathāgata's deeds. Although Buddha explained foxing for beings, icchantikas cannot recognize foxing due to their transmigration. Thus, it is called "bu jian rulai suozuo不見如來所作 (not seeing that carried out by the Tathagata)." Seeing that the Tathāgata has gone into the ultimate nirvān . a, the icchantikas mistakenly thinks that the Tathāgata is impermanent, just like the light that goes out when the oil is exhausted. Specifically, in the Sanskrit fragment, "dhātu" does not appear in this passage. On the contrary, Dharmaks . ema and his collaborators translated something as "foxing," which is the Chinese translation term of "buddhadhātu" or "dhātu" in many cases.
Evidently, Dharmaks . ema and his collaborators translated something, compared with kalyān . akr . ta and sam . myaksam . bodhi found in the extant Sanskrit fragment, as foxing in the Da banniepan jing. The case that this kind of translation was made by Dharmaks . ema's hand is doubtful. Furthermore, the material corresponding to the sentence "yichanti jian yu rulai bijing niepan一闡提見於如來畢竟涅槃" cannot be found in the Sanskrit fragment. Accordingly, compared to Dharmaks . ema's translation, it is difficult to identify the direct evidence that icchantika can also achieve buddhahood in the existing Sanskrit fragments.
Notably, as the above section, the difference between the Sanskrit fragment and Chinese translation is located in the ninth fascicle of the Da banniepan jing, which is attributed to a rendering by Dharmaks . ema himself. According to previous research, after the finishing of the translation of the first twelve fascicles of the Da banniepan jing, Dharmaks . ema stayed in Guzang姑臧 and learned the Chinese language for three years. 71 In other words, the section discussed above, where the difference in foxing between Sanskrit and Chinese appears, was translated by Dharmaks . ema when he was not proficient in the Chinese language. For this reason, it would be understandable if his collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views, or removed agency from Dharmaks . ema, into their translations. 72 According to the Gaoseng zhuan高僧傳 [Biographies of Eminent Monks], Dharmaks . ema was engaged in the translation work of the Da banniepan jing from 414 to 421. 73 Dharmaks . ema intended to go abroad because there was a shortage in the original text of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. However, due to his mother's death, he had no choice but to stay for several years. After that, he actually went to Khotan and found the middle portion of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. Dharmaks . ema then returned to Guzang and translated it. Finally, he sent people to Khotan and found the latter portion of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. This was translated into the thirty-three fascicles of the Da boeniapan jing. This translation work was launched during the third year of Xuanshi玄 始 and finished on the twenty-third of October of the tenth year of Xuanshi, namely the second year of Yongchu永初. 玄始三年初就翻譯，至玄始十年十月二十三日三袠方竟，即宋武永初二年也。 74 Furthermore, according to the Guanding灌頂 (561-632)'s record, from 414 to 416, Dharmaks . ema was engaged in translating the Da banniepan jing by collaborating with Zhimeng智猛 (?-452). 75 When Dharmaks . ema arrived at the western Liang state西涼州, Juqu Mengxun沮渠蒙 遜 dominated the Longhou隴後 area and the Xuanshi玄始 reign began. During the third year of Xuanshi, Juqu Mengxun asked Dharmaks . ema to translate the Da banniepan jing. Dharmaks . ema translated five fascicles of its original text into twenty fascicles of the classical Chinese translation. After that, due to the shortage in the original text, Juqu mengxun sent people abroad and found eight fascicles. They were the chapters of bingxing病行 品, shengxing聖行品, fanxing梵行品, yingerxing嬰兒行品, dewang徳王品, shizihou師子吼品, jiashe迦葉品 and chenru陳如品. Dharmaks . ema translated them into twenty fascicles and spread them across northern China. During the fifth year of Xuanshi, the translation work of the Da banniepan jing was complete.

經本中分，復還姑臧譯之。後又遣使于闐尋得後分，於是續譯為三十三巻。以偽
If these documents are examined together, they record that Dharmaks . ema clearly translated the original text of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra with Zhimeng and the support of other collaborators at least twice. 77 If so, the significant difference in foxing between the extant Sanskrit fragments and Dharmaks . ema's Da banniepan jing discussed in this section belongs to the first twelve fascicles of his translation, which was translated by Dharmaks . ema and his collaborators when he had not yet mastered the Chinese language.
Accordingly, the role of Dharmaks . ema's collaborators and disciples in his translation of the Da banniepan jing is important. Needless to say, it is also likely that Dharmaks . ema had seen Faxian's translation, and its use of foxing, and himself reasoned that this was a good way of communicating what the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra was teaching.
Regarding my hypothesis mentioned above, one of my reviewers once noted: "Even if Dharmaks . ema was not familiar with the Chinese language at that time, in my opinion, a translator's limited proficiency in the target language does not make it more likely that the translator would insert into his translation something that is not there in the source language. Probably the reverse argument can also be made, namely, a translator who has excellent proficiency in the target language would then be more likely to insert into his translation something that was not there in the source language. Alternatively, I don't think it makes much sense for the author to suggest that, since his Chinese language was not good enough, then his collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views into their translations. Were Dharmaks . ema's colleagues to add anything into the translation of the Da banniepan jing, this inserted notion must had already become quite popular before the text was translated." I have to add something of my response towards this query here. In my view, it is likely that either Dharmaks . ema or his collaborators and disciples translated some other terms as the Chinese term foxing. There are further two possibilities. One is that they created the term foxing here. Another possibility is that they used the term foxing, which had already become popular before the translation of the Da banniepan jing. For the second possibility, when I say Dharmaks . ema's collaborators and disciples inserted some personal views into their translations, needless to say, it is also possible that their personal views had been influenced by some terms which had already become popular then. In other words, I do not think that there is a fundamental contradiction between my reviewer's hypothesis and that of mine, although both of our views are merely assumptions. 78 Additionally, some sections of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema state that icchantikas also possess foxing.
For those who are icchantikas, although they possess buddha-nature, they are held down by the stain of their innumerable transgressions, unable to get free, like silkworms inside of cocoons. Because of their karmic conditions, they cannot produce a marvellous cause that would lead to bodhi and instead transmigrate through sam . sāra with no end in sight. 79

彼一闡提雖有佛性，而為無量罪垢所纏，不能得出。如蠶所繭。以是業緣，不能 生於菩提妙因。流轉生死，無有窮已。 80
As mentioned above, Chinese translators used the term foxing to correspond with various original terms. In this section, they translate "bi yichanti sui you foxing彼一闡提雖有 佛性." Furthermore, although the Chinese translation states that icchantikas can merely float in the stream of birth and death without becoming free from transmigration, according to its interpretation, icchantikas definitely possess foxing. This statement has strongly influenced even wider East Asian Buddhist thought.
Conversely, the Nihuan jing translated by Faxian states the following.
Icchantikas are separated from the rulai xing如來性 (lineage of the tathāgata) forever due to committing the crime of criticizing the Buddhist Dharma. It is like the cocoon created by bugs which controls the bugs themselves, so do icchantikas. They cannot stimulate their origins of Bodhi in the lineage of the tathāgata, so that they cannot become free from transmigration during all lives.

彼一闡提於如來性所以永絶，斯由誹謗作大惡業。如彼蠶虫綿網，自纏而無出 處。一闡提輩亦復如是。於如來性不能開發起菩提因，乃至一切極生死際。 81
Evidently, the rulai xing如來性 found in this section of the Nihuan jing corresponds to the foxing stated in the Da banniepan jing. 82 However, the Nihuan jing clearly states that icchantikas are forever separated from the rulai xing due to committing the crime of criticizing the Buddhist Dharma. Although Faxian also used the term foxing in the Nihuan jing, there were fewer uses of the term than those in the Da banniepan jing. In this section, Faxian used the term rulai xing instead of foxing.
Regardless, it remains necessary to confirm whether the original Sanskrit text of the Nihuan jing and that of the Da banniepan jing are identical or not. From the perspective discussed above, on the relationship between icchantika and rulai xing (or foxing), it seems likely that the assertions of Dharmaks . ema's Chinese collaborators also influenced the translation more or less. 83 Identical to the classical Chinese translation by Dharmaks . ema, the Tibetan translation of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra states that Buddha-nature is also within the icchantikas' bodies; among various translations of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, the only version that states the icchantika without Buddha-nature is the Nihuan jing. It is very likely that the translators of the Tibetan translation consulted Dharmaks . ema's classical Chinese translation. 84 According toŌchō, the Nihuan jing denies the possibility that icchantikas can achieve buddhahood, whereas the Da banniepan jing states that icchantikas can achieve this if they successfully see their shanxin善心 (good mind). 85 The discussion above also clarifiesŌchō's assertion. The sentence "iccham . tikāh . kalyān . akr . tam . na" in the extant Sanskrit fragment corresponds to "bu jian zhe wei bu jian foxing不見者謂不見佛性." "Icchantikas fail to see virtuous deed (kalyān . akr . ta)" in this Sanskrit fragment corresponds to "icchantikas can achieve buddhahood" in the Da banniepan jing. While we cannot know what Dharmaks . ema was seeing in his Sanskrit text, I contend that this translation strongly supported the theory that icchantikas can achieve buddhahood in East Asian Buddhism. 86 Concerning this issue, Takasaki notes that the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema, alongside the Nihuan jing translated by Faxian, also states that icchantikas do not possess foxing before the eleventh fascicle. In contrast, after this fascicle, the Da banniepan jing admits the possibility that icchantikas could finally achieve buddhahood. Saliently, the above portion can only be found in the classical Chinese translation rather than the Sanskrit or other texts. 87 Furthermore, Matsumoto Shirō松本史朗 asserts that in the Da banniepan jing, the you foxing有佛性 (possessing Buddha-nature) does not mean jie chengfo皆成佛 (accomplishing buddhahood for all beings). 88 Both Takasaki and Matsumoto were aware of the difference between the first twelve and subsequent fascicles of the Da banniepan jing. Clearly, their assertions reinforce my opinion.
To summarize, as a classical Chinese Buddhist canon text translated at the beginning of the fifth century, the Da banniepan jing used the term foxing, which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. Foxing was most naturally translated buddhadhātu, but the Sanskrit fragments do not mention buddhadhātu. Those sections where the difference between the Sanskrit and the Chinese translation of foxing appears belong to the translation made by Dharmaks . ema before he was proficient in the Chinese language. 89 For this reason, it is not impossible that his collaborators and disciples may have inserted some personal views into their translations. It is possible that his inserted notion had already become popular before the translation of the Da banniepan jing. Meanwhile, it is also likely that Dharmaks . ema had seen Faxian's translation, and its use of foxing, and himself reasoned that this was a good, shorthand way of communicating what the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra was teaching.
Moreover, over half of the Da banniepan jing, after the first 10 juan, is unique to this version. We have no Sanskrit fragments corresponding to its content and no Tibetan, apart from a Tibetan translation made from Dharmaks . ema's Chinese translation. 90

Foxing in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大方等無想經 and Gun . abhadra's Renderings
In this short section, as a supplement for this study, I intend to slightly mention the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing 大方等無想經 [Skt. Mahāmeghasūtra; T387] by Dharmaks . ema and the renderings by  from roughly the same time.
As is mentioned in the first section of this article, according to the Chu sanzang ji ji出三藏記集, 11 texts were regarded as Dharmaks . ema's translations. It is impossible to analyze the term foxing in all of them in this space-limited article. Since we have a Tibetan translation of the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing, the Sprin chen po'i mdo (Derge no. 232; Peking no. 898), I merely have a look at one case of foxing in this text.
The Mahāmeghasūtra is a tathāgatagarbha doctrinal sutra, overlapping with the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. The Da fangdeng wuxiang jing, the Chinese rendering of the Mahāmeghasūtra, was also translated by Dharmaks . ema. In the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing and the corresponding Tibetan translation, we can find the following example: Da fangdeng wuxiang jing大方等無想 經 (Taishō no. 387, 1102b2-3) Sprin chen po'i mdo (Derge no. 232,194b) 猛風起者，喻如來常。風入毛孔 者，喻諸眾生悉有佛性。 de bzhin du 'dir yang ting nge 'dzin gyis de bzhin gshegs pa'i yon tan rtag pa nyid kyi yon tan gyis bsgos pa'i rlung nyon mongs pa'i nam mkha' la ldang bar byed cing/ In the Tibetan rendering, confirming a reasonable corresponding term to the Chinese term foxing here is a little difficult. We cannot find de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po (buddhanature), but only de bzhin gshegs pa'i yon tan or rtag pa nyid kyi yon tan. We also confirm some similar cases in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing like this. 91 In other words, Dharmaks . ema uses the term foxing in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing, while the corresponding term or phrase in the Tibetan translation is unclear.
Although the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing may appear to be a partial translation of the Mahāmegha-sūtra, the real situation was more likely that the original text was still incomplete when Dharmaks . ema brought it to China. 92 Gun . abhadra was born in central India to a brāhman . a family and departed from Sri Lanka for China, arriving in Guangzhou by sea in around 435. 93 He translated some famous Mahāyānist sutras, including the Yangjuemoluo jing央掘魔羅經 [Pāli. Aṅgulimāla-sutta; Skt. Aṅgulimālīyasūtra; T120] and the Da fagu jing 大法鼓經 [Skt. Mahābherīhārakasūtra; T270], in which the term foxing can be found. The Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema, however, was brought to Jiankang建康, present-day Nanjing南京, becoming the foundation of the southern version of this scripture's Chinese rendering. Huiyan 慧嚴 (363-433), Huiguan 慧觀 (4th to 5th centuries CE) and Xie Lingyun 謝靈運 (385-433) edited this scripture into the southern version in 436. 94 Moreover, with their help, Gun . abhadra translated some texts. 95 For this reason, the term foxing found in Gun . abhadra's renderings, which were translated later than the renderings translated by Faxian, Buddhabhadra and Dharmaks . ema, was probably more or less influenced by the Da banniepan jing. 96

The Interpretations of Foxing in Later Chinese Buddhism
Dharmaks . ema was proficient at incantation and respected in many countries. 97 Finally, he was assassinated by Juqu Mengxun沮渠蒙遜 (368-433), the King of Northern Liang北涼. Northern Wei destroyed Northern Liang very soon afterwards. Dharmaks . ema's disciples and collaborators moved to Pingcheng平城, the capital of Northern Wei北魏. Furthermore, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema was brought to Jiankang建康, becoming the foundation of the southern version of this scripture's classical Chinese translation. Hence, in my opinion, the translations and concepts in Dharmaks . ema's system strongly influenced Buddhism during the Northern Wei period, especially Bodhiruci菩提流支 (6th century CE; active in China after 508) and Ratnamati勒那摩提 (6th century CE; active in China after 508). The Da banniepan jing, which was sufficiently researched in Northern Wei, became the foundation of the doctrines of the Dilun tradition地論宗, including Huiyuan of the Jingying temple淨影寺慧遠 (523-592). 98 The influence of the Da banniepan jing on Chinese Buddhist thought is apparent. As abundant amount of research already exists on this issue 99 ; I will, therefore, merely discuss the cases of Huiyuan of the Jingying temple and Guanding of the Tiantai tradition天台宗 in this section.
In the Da banniepan jing yi ji大般涅槃經義記 [Meaning of the Great Nirvana Sutra], Huiyuan's commentary on the Da banniepan jing, he states the following.
There is a type of Buddha-nature that the icchantikas have but those who possess wholesome roots do not. [Namely, the icchantikas] have the unwholesome nature, and hence they lack wholesome nature. Due to dependent origination [based upon] the Buddhanature, unwholesome aggregates arise. Hence unwholesome aggregates are named Buddhanature, which the icchantikas have. There is another type of Buddha-nature that those who possess wholesome roots have but the icchantikas don't. Those who have advanced above the first [bodhisattva-]stage are called people with wholesome roots. Or more broadly, the bodhisattvas above the stage of buddha-gotra (Chin. zhongxing di 種性地) are named wholesome human beings (i.e., people with wholesome roots). They have wholesome nature and lack unwholesome nature. There is a type of Buddha-nature that both [of the above two groups of people] have, namely, they both have the nature as the principle (lixing 理性is a short form for li foxing 理佛性). There is another type of Buddha-nature that both [of the above two groups of people] do not have, namely, neither of them has the nature as the result (meaning that they have not attained Buddhahood).
Huiyuan's interpretation contains vital information. The statement that icchantikas also possess Buddha-nature (foxing) is clearly influenced by the Da banniepan jing. According to Huiyuan's explanation, icchantikas have the arising Buddha-nature and principal Buddhanature. Among these two, the arising Buddha-nature is only possessed by icchantikas. Thus, it is clear that Huiyuan was deeply influenced by the Da banniepan jing and regarded it as the foundation of his theory of Buddha-nature. 101 The most significant connection in this passage is the term foxing, which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the current Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra.
Accordingly, after Northern Wei extinguished Northern Liang, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema, and his assistants' interpretations, were likely conveyed to Pingcheng, the Northern Wei capital, and influenced the Dilun monastic tradition, including monks such as Huiyuan.
Moreover, Guanding states in the Da banniepan jing shu大般涅槃經疏 [Commentary on the Mahāparinirvān . a-Sūtra] as below.
First, hearing (Chin. wen聞) is divine ear (Skt. divyaśrotra; Chin. tianer 天耳). Seeing (Chin. jian見) is divine eye (Skt. divyacaks . us; Chin. tianyan 天眼). They relate to the jishen tong即身通 (penetrating understanding with the body). Second, the ninth stage is hearing, in which one can see Buddha-nature. The tenth stage is sight, in which one can complete and clarify himself through seeing Buddha-nature. Achieving the ninth stage by liberation of wisdom is the particular hearing which is manifested without normal hearing. Achieving the tenth stage from the ninth stage is the particular seeing which is manifested without normal seeing. Achieving the buddhahood stage from the tenth stage is the particular achieving which is manifested without normal achieving.

見佛性，具足明了。今因慧解脱至第九地，是不聞而聞。因九地至十地，即不見 而見。因十地至佛地，為不至而至。 102
Guanding mentions the term "jian foxing見佛性" as found in the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema in his commentary and states that one would see foxing if he has achieved the ninth stage of bodhisattvas' stages. As has been discussed above, Dharmaks . ema and his assistants translated something, which is reported as the gotra of tathāgata (rigs) and good deeds (kalyān . akr . ta) in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, as jian foxing (seeing Buddha-nature). 103 Evidently, the gotra of tathāgata (rigs) means those people who will or have achieved the boundary of the tathāgata. However, Guanding only used the term jian foxing, while zhongxing (Skt. gotra; lineage/caste) cannot be found. Furthermore, he attempted to integrate jian foxing with the theory of the stages of the bodhisattvas, especially the ninth stage. 104 Evidently, the Da banniepan jing was translated by Dharmaks . ema with his assistants' interpretations, influenced not only the Dilun monastic tradition, but also the Tiantai monastic tradition and monks such as Guanding. The term "jian foxing" found in the Da banniepan jing was emphasized by Guanding, the direct disciple of Zhiyi智顗 (538-597). 105 As is well known, this term greatly influenced the later Tiantai tradition, the Huayan華嚴 (Jp. Kegon) tradition and Chan禪 (Jp. Zen) Buddhism through some of the early Tiantai monks such as Guanding. According to Whalen Lai, the Tiantai tradition, based on the Lotus Sūtra (Chin. Fahua jing法華經), superseded the Nirvāna tradition涅槃宗 by incorporating many of its ideas. 106 We can therefore imagine the wide influence of the Da banniepan jing (Nirvāna Sūtra) and the Nirvāna tradition. Needless to say, the most important idea of the Nirvāna tradition is the theory of foxing. 107 However, also as discussed above, the extant Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra states that icchantikas do not see good deeds (kalyān . akr . ta). Instead, the term or phrase in this corresponding place was rendered as "bu jian foxing不見佛性" in the Da banniepan jing. The most important term foxing cannot be found as a fixed term in our current Sanskrit fragment.
While probably correct from the perspective of those Indic original texts, I suppose that a crucial point exists. That is, from the perspective of a Chinese reader, in all these cases there is only one single term-the Chinese word foxing佛性. 108

Conclusions
In East Asian Buddhism, rulaizang (Skt. tathāgatagarbha) is sometimes considered a synonym of foxing (Buddha-nature) because the relationship between these two terms was ambiguous in Chinese Buddhism since some monks and schools declared that foxing is the same as rulaizang. The early translators who emphasized some translated terms as foxing were Buddhabhadra and Dharmaks . ema, two Indian Buddhist monks living in China in the first half of the fifth century. That is to say, the cases of the Chinese term foxing appeared during the Northern Liang dynasty (397-439) and the second half of the Eastern Jin (317-420) are probably the key to probing some early cases where the term foxing appeared.
The Da fangdeng rulaizang jing (Skt. Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra) translated by Buddhabhadra is a very early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text where the term foxing is clearly used to express Buddha-nature. However, the Chinese term foxing is difficult to confirm in Amoghavajra's classical Chinese translation. Although a lack of clarity remains about Buddhabhadra's motivation, as an early classical Chinese Buddhist canon text, the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing used the term foxing, which cannot be confirmed in other extant translations of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra. 109 Compared to the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing, the Da banniepan jing (Skt. Mahāparinirvān . amahāsūtra) translated by Dharmaks . ema has exerted a much greater influence on Chinese Buddhist thought. As another early classical Chinese Buddhist canonical text, the Da banniepan jing also used the term foxing, which cannot be correspondingly confirmed in the surviving Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. 110 The sections where the differences between the Sanskrit fragment and the Chinese term foxing appear belong to Dharmaks . ema's early translation before he was proficient in the Chinese language.
Furthermore, it is very unrealistic to believe that the same person or group simultaneously translated all forty fascicles of the Da banniepan jing. Different people would have edited these fascicles in several stages. Notably, buddhadhātu, the original Sanskrit term of the Chinese term foxing, which is regarded as the most significant term in the Da banniepan jing, cannot be found in the extant Sanskrit fragments of this scripture. Dharmaks . ema translated the original text of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra with Zhimeng and the support of other collaborators at least twice. The significant difference between the Sanskrit fragments and the classical Chinese translation of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra in this article belongs to the first twelve fascicles of Dharmaks . ema's translation aided by his disciples and collaborators when he had not yet mastered the Chinese language. Therefore, we should not ignore the role of his assistants. Of course, it is also likely that Dharmaks . ema had seen Faxian's translation and its use of foxing and, himself, reasoned that this was a good, shorthand way of communicating what the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra was teaching.
Meanwhile, we frequently find sangs rgyas kyi khams/dbyings, which is a translation of buddhadhātu in the Tibetan rendering of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. This leads us to presume that Faxian and Dharmaks . ema both read versions of the Mahāparinirvān . amahāsūtra that used this term and translated it and other terms, including those I mentioned in this article, with foxing.
It is likely that Faxian translated a version of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra that featured buddhadhātu as foxing. Buddhabhadra, in the same period, translated a version of the Tathāgatagarbha-sūtra. In some passages, he had favoured the term foxing over a literal translation of the Sanskrit. As a contemporary monk with Buddhabhadra and Faxian, Dharmaks . ema translated the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra, going further than Faxian by using the term foxing regularly. Our Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra are surely of a later date. 111 We can suspect that both Dharmaks . ema and Buddhabhadra employ foxing as a non-literal translation, after Faxian.
Moreover, after Northern Wei extinguished Northern Liang, the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema, and the interpretations of his collaborators and disciples were likely conveyed to Pingcheng, the Northern Wei capital. These two texts translated by Buddhabhadra and Dharmaks . ema respectively, especially the Da banniepan jing, deeply influenced the Dilun monastic tradition. Among these, the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations played a highly significant role, influencing the whole of East Asian Buddhist thought. Needless to say, the controversies focusing on the concept of "Buddha-nature" within all sentient beings in East Asian Buddhism, including the theory of tathāgatagarbha, are closely related to the term foxing and its Sinicism explanations discussed in this article. However, it is difficult to clarify the accurate origin of the Chinese term foxing at least at the beginning of the fifth century in the relevant Sanskrit and Tibetan fragments and texts at present. 112 The aim of this article was not to be exhaustive or comprehensive but to provide some additional reflections on the term foxing represented in the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and the Da banniepan jing, two contemporary classical Chinese renderings, suggesting possible further research. Although it is a little difficult to say that the Da fangdeng rulaizang jing and the Da banniepan jing are the earliest classical Chinese Buddhist canon texts where the term foxing is clearly used to express Buddha-nature, these two Chinese renderings are very early-stage translations in this sense. It is hoped that this study can make a small contribution to reconsider the origin and background of the Chinese term foxing within the historical context of Chinese Buddhist translation.

Conflicts of Interest:
The author declares no conflict of interest.

58
The Sanskrit passages in this article is based upon Johnston (1950), see Ratnagotravibhāga, ed. Edward Hamilton Johnston. Patna: The Bihar Research Society, 1950. 59 Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun究竟一乘宝性論 3, T. 1611: 31.828b1-5. 60 Regarding this issue of the Ratnagotravibhāga, see Li (2016). 61 The Chinese version of the Ratnagotravibhāga is often pretty different to the Sanskrit and Tibetan. We cannot rule out that tathāgatagotra was not seen by Ratnamati. 62 Indeed, the fact remains that the Jiujing yisheng baoxing lun elsewhere clearly also used foxing to render Skt. buddhadhātu, not only Skt. gotra. In other words, both Dharmaks . ema and Ratnamati came to use the term foxing to translate a broader range of terms and phrases, including, needless to say, tathāgatagarbha and buddhadhātu.
According to the preface in the eighth fascicle of the Chu sanzang ji ji, the Sanskrit text related to the first ten fascicles of the Da banniepan jing translated by Dharmaks . ema had been brought to China by Zhimeng智猛 (?-452). The "Da niepan jing ji di shiqi"大 涅槃經記第十七 in the eighth fascicle of the Chu sanzang ji ji states that: "此《大涅槃經》初十巻有五品。其胡本是東方道人智猛 從天竺將來, 暫憩高昌。有天竺沙門曇無讖, 廣学博見, 道俗兼綜。遊方觀化, 先在燉煌。河西王宿植洪業, 素心冥契。契應王公, 躬 統士衆。西定燉煌, 会遇其人, 神解悟識。請迎詣州, 安止內苑。遣使高昌, 取此胡本, 命讖譯出." (T. 2145: 55.60a) That is, although Dharmaks . ema is considered the translator of the Da banniepan jing, this classical Chinese translation version and its Sanskrit original text are closely related to the Western Regions of China. 73 As mentioned above, Chen argues that Dharmaks . ema in fact made no translation until 421. See Chen (2004). Although I quote some materials from the Gaoseng zhuan here, I accept Chen's conclusion. 74 Gaoseng zhuan高僧傳 2, T. 2059: 50.336b1-6. 75 Regarding the references to Dharmaks . ema and Zhimeng in the Gaoseng zhuan, see Naoumi (1986). 76 Da banniepan jing xuanyi大般涅槃經玄義 2, T. 1765: 38.14a26-b2. 77 On the contrary, as mentioned in the first section, Chen Jinhua argues that Dharmaks . ema in fact made no translation until 421. See Chen (2004). 78 On the other hand, it is also important to realise the textual fluidity of Sanskrit original of the Mahāparinirvān . amahāsūtra, in addition to the possibility of the translator's creation or insertion. Accordingly, it looks that there is currently no clear witnesses to ascertain whether the translation term foxing is the translator's faithful translation of the Sanskrit original, the translator's creation, or his insertion. 79 This is based on Blum's translation, see Mark L. Blum (2013, p. 287). 80 Da banniepan jing大般涅槃經 9, T. 374: 12.419b5-7. 81 Foshuo da bannihuan jing佛説大般泥洹經 6, T. 376: 12.893a8-11. 82 Concerning this paragraph, the Tibetan translation states: " 'dod chen pa rnams la yang de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po yod mod kyi (Even the icchantika has tathāgatagarbha.)/ 'on kyang g-yogs ma shin tu stug par 'dug go//dper na dar gyi srin bu rang nyid kyis kun nas dkris te/sgo ma btod pas phyir 'byung mi nus pa de bzhin du/de bzhin gshegs pa'i snying po yang de'i las kyi nyes pas 'dod chen pa'i khong nas dbyung bar mi nus so//de bas na 'khor ba'i mtha' las byang chub kyi rgyu mi 'thob bo //" See Habata (2013, p. 349). 83 Although it is likely that the original Sanskrit text of the Nihuan jing and that of the Da banniepan jing were not identical, as mentioned above, Dharmaks . ema came to use the term foxing to translate a broader range of terms and phrases. We also should not totally deny the element of the activity of translators. 84 Dharmaks . ema's version is closer to the Tibetan translation. In other words, Faxian's rendering looks to be the exception on this matter. 85 Concerning this argument, seeŌchō (1981, p. 42). 86 The extant Sanskrit fragments of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra currently available to us is just a part of the entire text. I must confess that there might be other examples that contradict to my argument in undiscovered portions of the Sanskrit original text. 87 Takasaki points out this in his work, see Takasaki (1983). 88 Matsumoto points out this in his work, see Matsumoto (1989). 89 The remaining content of Dharmaks . ema's translation is unique to that version, so it is difficult to assess how close it is to other versions of the Mahāparinirvān . a-mahāsūtra. See Radich (2019a) for the most recent discussion of this material. It looks like the Dharmaks . ema-unique material is something of a compilation of material from various sources, from Central Asia or plausibly the work of himself. I am grateful to one of my anonymous reviewers for reminding me of this. 90 Concerning this, see Radich (2019a) and Jones (2020a). 91 To my knowledge, Christopher Jones is researching this issue in the Da fangdeng wuxiang jing. I look forward to his forthcoming publication. Regarding his previous research, see Christopher Jones (2016). 92