Shrines and Pilgrimages in Poland as an Element of the “Geography” of Faith and Piety of the People of God in the Age of Vatican II (c. 1948–1998)

: This research is aimed at learning about the origins and functions of shrines, and changes to the pilgrimage movement in Poland during the Vatican II era (c. 1948–1998). The objective required ﬁnding and determining the following: (1) factors in the establishment of shrines in Poland during this time; (2) factors in the development of shrines with reference to the transformation of religious worship and to the inﬂuence of political factors in Poland; (3) changes in pilgrimage traditions in Poland, and (4) changes in the number of pilgrimages to selected shrines. These changes were determined by archive and library research. Additionally, ﬁeld studies were performed at more than 300 shrines, including observations and in-depth interviews with custodians. Descriptive–analytical, dynamic–comparative and cartographic presentation methods were used to analyze results.


Introduction
Pilgrimages are some of the oldest and most permanent religious practices in all major religions around the world (Chélini and Branthomme 1982;Collins-Kreiner 2010;Timothy and Olsen 2006). Since the beginning of the history of mankind, pilgrimages to sacred sites have contributed to the development of the geographic and cultural-civilizational horizon of nations (Coleman and Eade 2004;Dyas 2020;Eliade 1969;Jackowski 2003;Mróz 2021b;Singh 2004). A renaissance in travel motivated by religion or religious and cognitive reasons has been observed worldwide since the late 20th century (Bowman et al. 2020;Digance 2003;Eade 1992;Margry 2008;Mróz 2019;Reader 2007).
Shrines and pilgrimages contain both static and dynamic geographic elements. They have their history and are subject to constant transformations (Cohen 1992;Kaszowski 1996;Krogmann 2007;Maddrell et al. 2014;Mróz 2021b;Robinson 1997;Timothy and Olsen 2006;Turner and Turner 1978). As part of the geographic space covered by pilgrims from the starting point of the pilgrimage to the sacred site and back, the pilgrimage space is unique and dynamic for each shrine and for each pilgrim (Kaszowski 1996;Mróz 2021a;Roszak 2017;Roszak and Tykarski 2020;Oviedo 2019;Ostrowski 2017). For pilgrims, a pilgrimage is also both a journey to a sacred place, and an inimitable process encompassing every experience occurring on the way to the destination (Ostrowski 2020;Roszak 2020).
Pilgrimages in Poland have a tradition of several centuries (Jackowski 2003). Currently, there are 800 shrines in Poland, 98% of which are associated with the Catholic Church (Mróz 2021a). The Polish pilgrimage space is dynamic; it keeps evolving and transforming. It constitutes the centuries-old heritage of faith and folk piety of previous generations. The space comprises churches, convents of religious congregations, synagogues, mosques, churches of Priestless Old Believers, cemeteries, tens of roadside crosses, chapels, and especially sacred sites-shrines where miraculous or gracious images of Virgin Mary, images of the Lord (mainly crosses), and images of saints and beati are venerated, as well as ohels (tombs) of rabbis and tzadiks (for example: ohel of Reb Elimelech of Lizhensk in Leżajsk).  (c. 1948-1998). Source: author. Figure 1. Factors affecting the development of pilgrimages and shrines during the Vatican II era (c. 1948-1998). Source: author.
As a result of changes in territory, the Polish pilgrimage space began to include shrines that had not been situated within the borders of the Republic of Poland during the interwar period (e.g., BardoŚląskie, Gietrzwałd, GóraŚwiętej Anny, Krzeszów,Święta Lipka, Trzebnica, Wambierzyce) (Datko 2016). New pilgrimage centers associated with the cult of images brought from the eastern areas of the Republic of Poland and taken over by the Soviet Union in 1945 were also established. Priests and the faithful who were leaving their home towns in the areas of the former Republic of Poland risked persecution by Soviet communists when removing the miraculous images they had cherished in their parish churches for years (Kukiz 2000;Mróz 2021a;Skowron-Charif 2001;Sołjan 2002). The relocation of miraculous images of the Lord (more than 10 images), the Virgin Mary (approx. 140 images) and saints (more than 10 images) from sacred sites in the areas taken over by the Soviet Union in 1945 resulted in the emergence of more than 20 pilgrimage centers in Poland after 1945, mainly Marian loca sacra (Datko 2016;Kukiz 2000Kukiz , 2002Mróz 2021a). The change in the eastern border of Poland in 1945 had an immense impact on the reduction in pilgrimages to shrines located near the Polish-USSR border, such as Kalwaria Pacławska (Mróz 2021a).
The extensive research undertaken for this article, from archives and shrine custodian interviews, determined that in 1948 there were nearly 400 shrines and pilgrimage sites in Poland. Roman Catholic Church shrines constituted the major focus of pilgrimages during the post-war period. However, several Greek Catholic shrines (Grabarka and Jabłeczna) and pilgrimage sites of Muslims (Bohoniki and Kruszyniany) should also be mentioned here. During WWII, the Nazis murdered almost the entire Jewish community in Polish lands, and destroyed synagogues, cemeteries, and the ohele (Hebrew: tent) placed over the graves of Hassidic leaders, to which thousands of Hassids had been going on pilgrimages before the outbreak of the war. After 1945, the communist authorities of Poland closed devastated Jewish cemeteries and took steps to completely eliminate them (Gładyś and Górecki 2005). As regards Roman Catholic shrines, Marian shrines comprised the largest group, with more than 300 sites; 62 of these sites had images of the Mother of God crowned, based on specific papal consent for each location. In 1948 there were still 43 shrines in Poland devoted to Jesus Christ and the Holy Trinity, and 36 shrines of saints and beati. At the beginning of the Vatican II era, two regions in Poland were distinguished by a density of shrines: the Polish Carpathian Mountains (about 100 shrines) and the historic region of Wielkopolska (more than 70 shrines). At the time, the areas of western and northern Poland, or "Regained Territories" that were allocated to Poland after WWII in accordance with the arrangements made at the Potsdam Conference, were "blank spots" on the map of Polish shrines (Konopka and Konopka 2003) (Figure 2).
In 1949, the then authorities of the Polish People's Republic started to persecute the Catholic Church and impose restrictions on it. For example, the Department of Security arrested several hundred priests, while the Polish episcopate was accused of inspiring anti-state activity in the clergy. The regression in pilgrimages in Poland continued until the early 1960s, despite the fact that communists slightly softened their attitudes during the Khrushchev Thaw and the 1956 political transformation (Sołjan 2002). Religions 2021, 12, x 6 of 28 In 1949, the then authorities of the Polish People's Republic started to persecute the Catholic Church and impose restrictions on it. For example, the Department of Security arrested several hundred priests, while the Polish episcopate was accused of inspiring anti-state activity in the clergy. The regression in pilgrimages in Poland continued until the early 1960s, despite the fact that communists slightly softened their attitudes during the Khrushchev Thaw and the 1956 political transformation (Sołjan 2002).

The Great Novena before the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland
The late 1950s and the early 1960s marked a time of great reforms in the Catholic Church, initiated during the Second Vatican Council, which was opened on 11 October,

The Great Novena before the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland
The late 1950s and the early 1960s marked a time of great reforms in the Catholic Church, initiated during the Second Vatican Council, which was opened on 11 October, 1962 by Pope John XXIII, and closed on 8 December 1965 by Pope Paul VI. During that time, the Catholic Church in Poland saw the implementation of the pastoral program, developed by Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński (1901Wyszyński ( -1981, the Primate of Poland, referred to by Poles as the "Primate of the Millennium" upon his death. Cardinal Wyszyński's maxim was "I bet it all on the Virgin Mary" (Okońska 2001a;Zieliński 2008). His relentless and uncompromising attitude to the attempted atheization of Poland by the communist Kaczmarek in January 1951. He was subsequently interned without court judgment until 28 October 1956. While interned, Cardinal Wyszyński made an act of personal submission to the Virgin Mary: "Holy Mother, I submit to your captivity totally (...). The Mediatrix of all graces, everything I do with your Immaculate Hands will be entrusted to the grace of the Holy Trinity-Soli Deo!" (Okońska 2001b). Three years later, in August 1956, he undertook a nine-year program of religious and moral revival of Polish society-the Great Novena before the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland. The Novena was preceded by celebrations of great anniversaries in the subsequent three years-the Marian Year (1954) declared by Pope Pius XII on the hundredth anniversary of the Immaculate Conception dogma, the 300th anniversary of the victorious defense of Jasna Góra against the invasion of Swedish troops (1955), and the 300th anniversary of the Lviv Oath of King John II Casimir and the declaration of Mary as the Queen of Poland (1 April 1656 in Lviv) (Kupiszewska 2014).
On 26 August 1956, the Jasna Góra Vows of the Polish Nation took place in the shrine of Our Lady of Jasna Góra in Częstochowa. The prayer, taking the form of an oath to the Virgin Mary, was read by Bishop Michał Klepacz (serving as president of the Polish episcopate) on behalf of the detained Cardinal Wyszyński. For the celebration, it is estimated that an astonishing one million people from around the country flocked to the small town. The empty chair of the primate was a symbol of calls to set Cardinal Wyszyński free.
The social turmoil in October 1956 led to transformation in the top ranks of the communist authorities, resulting in the rise of Władysław Gomułka to First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party. Under social pressure, Gomułka made a considerable compromise with the Catholic Church in Poland and released Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. However, the period of liberalization in church policy was short, and towards the end of 1958, communist authorities returned to repressive activities and harsh attacks on the Church, in particular the clergy. Communists removed crosses from school classrooms, prohibited religious education from schools, did not grant permits to construct new churches, returned to the military conscription of clergymen, and initiated a campaign to destroy sacred buildings. For example, many military chapels and garrison churches were demolished (Wysocki 2008).
In his speeches, Wiesław Gomułka, First Secretary of the Central Committee of the Polish United Workers' Party, continually insulted Primate Wyszyński and attacked the millennium program of the Catholic Church. The official inauguration of the Great Novena before the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland saw the participation of Primate Stefan Wyszyński on 3 May 1957 in Częstochowa. The nine-year program of the Great Novena included individual vows, including those to defend life, the Catholic family, marriage, faith, and social justice, as well as to venerate the Holy Mother.
The Shrine of Our Lady of Jasna Góra in Częstochowa, the national shrine of the Polish nation, was a center of key importance when the Great Novena program was implemented. It was also the site of the main celebrations of the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland in 1966, which were led by the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński. The Polish episcopate invited Pope Paul VI to the event, but Gomułka did not agree to the visit, which became an international scandal. Again, an empty throne was the symbol of his absence. In 1966, approximately 2 million people visited the Shrine of Our Lady in Częstochowa (Jabłoński 2000;Jackowski 2005).
Primate Stefan Wyszyński also included other shrines in Poland in the agenda of the Great Novena, which was to prepare Poles spiritually for the celebrations of the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland. For this purpose, a new department for Polish shrines was established as part of the Marian Committee with the Episcopate of Poland (Kupiszewska 2014). In his speech to the priests gathered in the shrine in Jasna Góra in 1959, Cardinal Wyszyński emphasized the importance of shrines to the development of Polish piety: "Their immense network in all dioceses in Poland, three hundred sources of the grace of Jesus spreading from Mary throughout the whole Country. This is the power! And this power should be used in the work of moral renewal of the Nation, especially when working on the Great Novena before the Millennium", (Wyszyński 2006, p. 234). Primate Wyszyński gave the custodians of shrines a duty to perform during the third year of the Great Novena: "to animate all Marian sources of grace during the Year of Life, to animate all Marian shrines, even the smallest, most 'extinct' ones", (Wyszyński 2006, p. 235).
Earlier, while interned, Primate Wyszyński had developed an idea for the pilgrimage of a replica of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Częstochowa to all parishes around Poland. The replica of the image was consecrated by Pope Pius XII in the Vatican on 14 May 1957. The peregrination of the image started on 29 August 1957 at the Warsaw Archsee (Okońska 2008). Communist authorities tried to "arrest" the replica of the image of Our Lady of Jasna Góra at least twice (in Liksajny and in Lublin). In September 1966, when the replica of the image was being transported from Warsaw to Katowice, the Security Service ordered that the image be transported to Jasna Góra instead. The processions continued until 1972, with empty frames of the image accompanied by a sign with the words "detained and confined in Jasna Góra." At the time, the militia and officers of the Security Service checked each vehicle leaving the shrine of Jasna Góra to see if the replica of the miraculous image of Our Lady of Jasna Góra was being transported (Okońska 2008;Zaryn 2008).

The Development of Marian Shrines
Primate Wyszyński believed that Marian shrines played a very important role in the development of Marian piety. With reference to such shrines, he wrote that "even the small and poor ones are like the hand of Immaculate Mary, the Queen of Poland, reached out to help the nation and defend it", (Królowa Polski w wielu obliczach (Królowa Polski w wielu obliczach: 7). Shrines promoted mass religion, and initiated and supported religious celebrations, which gathered tens of thousands of followers (Datko 2016). Such celebrations mainly included coronations of miraculous Marian images. Coronation celebrations, which were mainly presided over by Primate Wyszyński, strengthened the Poles spiritually in their national, social and personal dedication to Mary, the Mother of the Church and the Queen of Poland.
It should be recalled here that the custom of crowning the gracious and miraculous images of the Mother of God has had a long history in the religious life of Poles. The first image of the Mother of God in Poland, the miraculous icon of Virgin Mary in the Church of the Pauline Fathers in Jasna Góra, was crowned in 1717 with the consent of the Holy See. Before the late 18th century, 29 images of the Mother of God had been ceremonially crowned in Poland; during the period of the partitions of Poland, 12 images were crowned , and during the period of the Second Commonwealth of Poland (1919Poland ( -1939, 22 images were (Fridrich 1904;Mróz and Mróz 2012;Witkowska 1996).
From the end of WWII until 1961, only two celebrations associated with the crowning of images of the Mother of God were held: in in village Piotrkowice (Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship) and in the parish church in Poznań. In the course of preparations for the celebration of the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland, bishops designated at least one image of the Mother of God in each of the dioceses in Poland (Sołjan 2002). During the period of the Great Novena before the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland (1957)(1958)(1959)(1960)(1961)(1962)(1963)(1964)(1965), twelve coronations based on papal consent ("in the name of and with the authority of God") were held with the appropriate consent of the Congregation of Divine Worship. During the Year of the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland (1966), nine images of the Mother of God were crowned (during Millennium celebrations in Jasna Góra on 3 May 1966, Primate Wyszyński crowned the image of Our Lady of Jasna Góra again). In subsequent years (1967)(1968)(1969)(1970), there were 20 coronations (cf. Grażyna od Wszechpośrednictwa and Szymczak coronations based on papal consent ("in the name of and with the authority of God") were held with the appropriate consent of the Congregation of Divine Worship. During the Year of the Millennium of the Baptism of Poland (1966), nine images of the Mother of God were crowned (during Millennium celebrations in Jasna Góra on 3 May 1966, Primate Wyszyński crowned the image of Our Lady of Jasna Góra again). In subsequent years (1967)(1968)(1969)(1970), there were 20 coronations (cf. Grażyna od Wszechpośrednictwa et al. 1999;Witkowska 1996). It should be emphasized, with reference to the Vatican II, era that the number of coronations of papal images of the Virgin Mary in Poland from 1948 to 1998 (126 coronations) was a rare phenomenon around the world (cf. Jackowski et al. 1999) (Figure 3). During that period, the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, celebrated the greatest number of coronations out of all bishops of the Catholic Church: a total of 41 coronations and six re-coronations of Marian images (Kupiszewska 2014;Datko 2016) (Figures 4-8).  . Source: author.           (Figure 12), in Wysokie Koło approx. 100,000, in Kawnice approx. 50,000, in Błotnica approx. 200,000, in Wąwolnica approx. 200,000, in Pszów approx. 100,000, in Różanystok approx. 300,000, in Wola Gułowska approx. 100,000, in Sejny-over 60,000 pilgrims (Figures 13 and 14).  (Figure 12), in Wysokie Koło approx. 100,000, in Kawnice approx. 50,000, in Błotnica approx. 200,000, in Wąwolnica approx. 200,000, in Pszów approx. 100,000, in Różanystok approx. 300,000, in Wola Gułowska approx. 100,000, in Sejny-over 60,000 pilgrims (Figures 13 and 14).
The national pilgrimages of men, young people, women, school pupils and children to Jasna Góra, associated with the greatest celebrations in the shrine, were some of the leading elements of the pastoral strategy of the Polish episcopate. Such celebrations included the Feast of the Mother of God the Queen of Poland (3 May), the Feast of the Assumption of Mary (15 August) and the Feast of Our Lady of Jasna Góra (26 August). The largest of such national pilgrimages during that period were the following: the National Pilgrimage of the Youth (26 August 1962) with the participation of approximately 500,000 people, the National Pilgrimage of Women and Girls (26 August 1965) with the participation of more than 300,000 women, and the Pilgrimage of Men and Boys (28 August 1966) with the participation of more than 250,000 people (Jabłoński 2000). In 1982, the First Pilgrimage of the Labour World to the Shrine of Our Lady of Częstochowa was organized upon the initiative of Rev. Jerzy Popiełuszko, and it was continued in subsequent years with the participation of approximately 100,000-200,000 people each time (Jabłoński 2000). The

Pilgrimages in Poland in the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s
In the 1960s, pilgrimages were not only a form of public demonstration of the faith, but also a means to express resistance to communist authorities, on the part of the Polish people. No other country behind the Iron Country noted such processes of the development of pilgrimages and shrines as Poland did. Datko emphasizes that "only mass religiosity could have been effective in opposing the communist ideology used as a tool of oppression and enslavement", (Datko 2016). At the time, the Polish pilgrimage space was a space for prayers and debates on social, patriotic and political topics (Jackowski et al. 1999;Myszor 2008). Shrines were amongst the main bastions of faith and the Church in the communist state (Datko 2016).
It is necessary to pay attention to the attitudes of communist authorities towards organizers of pilgrimages and to pilgrims. The authorities of the Polish People's Republic issued administrative ordinances that were supposed to hinder or even disable the organization of pilgrimages, especially walking pilgrimages, to sacred places. Vehicle traffic was restricted, and scheduled journeys on trains, buses and trams along the routes to pilgrimage sites were cancelled. The militia carried out thorough road inspections, recorded vehicle registration cards, noted and photographed registration plates of vehicles in shrine car parks, and then took measures against the pilgrims who were the owners of those vehicles. Authorities organized cultural events and entertainment for local communities that were designed to compete with traditional pilgrimages. In order to draw the faithful away from participation in pilgrimages, party and state authorities organized football games of first-league teams, as well as international games, speedway rallies, free trips to tourist attractions, and attractive TV broadcasts, to entice people to stay home. The militia and the security service persecuted, detained and inspected pilgrims. Lay pilgrim guides were frequently arrested and taxi drivers were prohibited from carrying the faithful during church fairs (Jackowski et al. 1999;Kopiczko 1996;Myszor 2008;Datko 2016). Numerous documents (which were confidential at the time) evidence the scale of the efforts taken by communist authorities to thwart the plans of pilgrims and the organizers of pilgrimages.
Officers of the Department of Security also took more extreme measures. Group "D" functioned in the Fourth Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs after 1973 and took "special steps" against pilgrims going to Jasna Góra. Grzegorz Piotrowski, who later killed Rev. Jerzy Popiełuszko, was one of these officers. Piotrowski was given the order to burn the barn of the host of pilgrims, to attempt to rape the host's daughter, and to contaminate his well during the pilgrimage of students to Jasna Góra (Dziurok 2008, p. 10). A tragic example was the use of napalm to set fire to the miraculous image of the Holy Mother of Stara Wieś in the shrine in Stara Wieś on 6 December 1968. The arsonist was never found. On 11 August 2006 the Institute of National Remembrance officially confirmed that the image was burnt by the Department of Security and the event was classified as a communist crime. The replica of the image was re-crowned (with the saved golden crowns dating back to 1877) on 10 September 1972 by the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, and Bishop Ignacy Tokarczuk (Mróz and Mróz 2015;Mróz 2018).
The communist authorities of the Polish People's Republic also hindered walking pilgrimages to the shrine in Jasna Góra. The only pilgrimage tolerated was the Warsaw Walking Pilgrimage to Jasna Góra (dating back to 1711), which became the all-Poland pilgrimage in the 1960s, and in the 1970s won international recognition. In 1969, approximately 8000 pilgrims participated in this pilgrimage, in 1976 18,000, and in 1977 almost 25,000 people (Wlaźlak and Sznajder 2009, p. 20). The propaganda of state authorities conveyed the message that the organization of the pilgrimage was a manifestation of civic and religious freedom in Poland. However, the Warsaw Walking Pilgrimage was under the constant surveillance of around 60 agents and officials of the Security Service. Additionally, secret collaborators were recruited. They were offered substantial pay for their operational intelligence activities. For example, in 1981, the Ministry of Internal Affairs paid 300-500 zlotys for ordinary information, 1000-2000 zlotys for accounts of attendance at a Holy Mass, and 3000 zlotys for a tape recording (in 1981, an average monthly salary in the national economy amounted to 7689 zlotys) (Jabłoński 2000); www.stat.gov.pl (accessed on 26 May 2021).
The celebrations of the Holy Year 1975 were another important factor affecting the development of pilgrimages in Poland during the Vatican II era. In order to facilitate the grace of indulgences for all the faithful around the world, Pope Paul VI declared the year 1974 to be a Holy Year for all countries worldwide, except for Italy and the Vatican. In Poland, pilgrimage centers where it was possible to obtain the Holy Year indulgence, after fulfilling the prescribed conditions, were designated (Kupiszewska 2014).
Devotion to the Holy Cross, the Passion and the Holy Sepulchre was one of the main characteristics of Polish religiosity during the Vatican II era. Several new Calvary shrines and shrines of Passion were established during that period: in Licheń, Serpelice, Ujście nad Notecią, Oborniki Wielkopolskie and Krasnobród, the Ecce Homo Shrine of St. Albert Chmielowski in Krakow, and the Shrine of the Holy Cross in Olecko and Rększowice. The shrine in Rększowice was built in expiation for the profanation of the cross by officers of the militia and ORMO (Volunteer Reserve of the Citizen's Militia) in April 1966. Cross segments that were cut by communists can be found in the shrine, on the main wall of the chancel, and incorporated in the scene of the Last Judgment (Mróz 2021a, p. 183). In 1951, the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre in Miechów, the oldest shrine of the Lord in Poland, was restored and prepared for veneration. In 1969, after a break of more than 120 years, devotion to the Holy Sepulchre was revived at the shrine in Przeworsk (Mróz 2000).
When it comes to shrines of the Lord, the greatest development in pilgrimages was noted in the Passion and Marian shrine in Kalwaria Zebrzydowska, and in the Shrine of the Holy Cross in Kraków-Mogiła. In August 1974, Cardinal Wojtyła wrote a letter to the residents of Krakow requesting them to go on a pilgrimage to the shrine in Mogiła on 15 September. More than 150,000 people responded to the Cardinal's call, mostly coming on foot. This was the First Expiatory Pilgrimage of the residents of Krakow to Mogiła (Mróz 2021a).
The constantly increasing pilgrimage movement is exemplified in the national shrine of Poland in Jasna Góra, but also in dozens of Marian shrines, shrines of the Lord, and shrines of saints and beati. In 1983, Poland celebrated the 600th anniversary of the convent in Jasna Góra. Some of the walking pilgrimages to Jasna Góra were initiated then (e.g., the Kashubian Pilgrimage) (Jackowski et al. 1999). The pilgrimage of men to the shrine of Our Lady in PiekaryŚląskie was especially important at the time. It saw the participation of more than 100,000 pilgrims each year, and often witnessed speeches by Cardinal Karol Wojtyła. During the 1970s, 12.5% of the population of Poland participated in religious pilgrimages, increasing to 15% during the 1980s (Jackowski et al. 1999).
The greatest numbers of visitors in the history of the Marian Shrine of Jasna Góra were recorded in 1979 (the first pilgrimage of John Paul II to Poland) and in 1991, when the Sixth World Youth Day was held from 10 to 15 August in Częstochowa, with the attendance of Pope John Paul II and approximately one and a half million young people from 77 countries worldwide. The estimated number of pilgrims amounted to 6-8 million people in each of these years (Jabłoński 2000). The number of participants in walking pilgrimages to Jasna Góra rapidly grew after 1977, and reached a record high in 1991 when 400,000 pilgrims came on foot to the World Youth Day organized in Częstochowa (Jackowski 2005). Numerous pedestrian pilgrimages to Jasna Góra were initiated for the 600th jubilee of the Jasna Góra convent, celebrated in 1983, e.g., the Kashubian pilgrimage from Swarzewo to Częstochowa, "600 kilometres for the 600th anniversary" (Jackowski et al. 1999, p. 166).
The beatification on 17 October 1971 by Pope Paul VI of Maximilian Maria Kolbe, and his subsequent canonization by Pope John Paul II on 10 October 1982, influenced the development of pilgrimages to the shrine of the saint in Niepokalanów. However, it should be emphasized that pilgrimages to the site had been increasing since 1954, when the construction of a large Basilica of Blessed Virgin Mary the Immaculate, the Mediatrix of All Graces, was finished. The Primate of the Millennium, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, visited the shrine 37 times.
From 3 November 1984, the tomb of Rev. Jerzy Popiełuszko (1947Popiełuszko ( -1984, the chaplain of "Solidarity", who was brutally murdered on 19 October 1984 by Security Service offi- The pilgrimages of Pope John Paul II to Poland and the beatifications or canonizations of figures from Poland by the Pope had an immense influence on the development of Polish shrines, and on the distinct development of pilgrimages and religious tourism during the period of 1990-1998 (Mróz 2014). During his pontificate, John Paul II made eight pilgrimages to Poland. Six of them occurred during the Vatican II era under discussion here (in 1979, 1983, 1987, 1991, 1995, and 1997). In the course of these six pilgrimages to Poland, Pope John Paul II visited more than 30 shrines (Jackowski and Sołjan 2005). On his pastoral visits to Poland, Pope John Paul II crowned 21 images of the Mother of God (Jodłówka, Łukawiec, Kielce, Łomża, Ełk, Kalisz-Niedźwiady, Wadowice, Darłowo, Wrocław, Krzeszów, Gniezno, Skulsk, Haczów, Jaśliska, Wielkie Oczy, Jamna, Wejherowo, Warszawa, Jaworzno, and Wadowice i Bydgoszcz). It should be emphasized that during his pontificate, John Paul II canonized 9 Poles and beatified 155 (www.opoka.org.pl/biblioteka/ T/TH/THO/25jp/turek_kanonizacje.html; accessed on 29 January 2021). As a result of these canonizations and beatifications, new shrines were established in Poland.
On 18  The first decade after the political changes in Poland also saw increased coronations of Marian images. In the years 1990-1998, 37 coronations of images of the Blessed Virgin Mary, on the basis of a papal bull, took place in Poland.
From the early 1990s, regional and local pilgrimage routes associated with John Paul II were established. Papal Routes covered hiking routes (mainly in the mountains), bicycle routes and kayak routes, which had been used by the then Rev. Karol Wojtyła (Mróz 2014). Various shrines began to gradually extend the pilgrimage infrastructure, and underwent renovation works that were almost impossible during the era of Communism. Moreover, it must be stressed that, since the 1990s, pilgrimages of Poles to shrines abroad (mainly Rome, Loreto, Assisi, Vilnius, Lourdes, and Fatima) have also developed (Ogórek 2006 70 shrines of Our Lord, and more than 70 shrines of saints and beati. The largest number of shrines could be found in the Polish Carpathians (more than 110 shrines), and also in Wielkopolska, Warmia and Mazowsze. There were also new shrines created in the areas of western and northern Poland (Figure 16).

Discussion
A detailed analysis of changes in the pilgrimages in Poland during the Vatican II era, and the discussion of factors affecting these transformations, is a challenging scientific venture. Out of necessity, this study has a much more modest scope. As a result of field research, library queries and archive queries, the author managed to analyze the network of shrines functioning during the Vatican II era in quantitative and qualitative terms, and has indicated, among other things, the number of shrines functioning in 1948, 1989 and 1998. The analyses presented in this study differ from previous publications on the matter. The number of shrines quoted by the authors of previous studies concerning the network of shrines in Poland seems very general, and mostly based on the network of Marian shrines. In the statistical annals of the Catholic Church in Poland, published in 1991, M. Ziółkowski mentioned that "pilgrimage sites in Poland include around 500 shrines, where more than 400 of them are Marian shrines" (Ziółkowski 1981, p. 224). Z. Jabłoński, in turn, argued that in 1999 there were 474 Marian shrines in Poland, including 120 shrines established based on a replica of the image of Our Lady of Jasna Góra (Jabłoński 2000, p. 160). In his numerous studies on pilgrimages in Poland, A. Jackowski wrote that "there are more than 500 pilgrimage shrines registered in Poland, with the predominance of Marian shrines (in a total number of 430)", (Jackowski 2005, p. 62). Research by these authors does not actually refer to the network of shrines of Our Lord or shrines of the saints and beati.
The analysis of the development of pilgrimages and shrines in Poland during the Vatican II era as presented in this paper inclines the author to conclude that it was a special and dynamic period in the history of Polish pilgrimage. Since the 1960s, pilgrimages in Poland have experienced exponential growth. The process was associated with preparations for the celebrations of the millennium of Christianity in Poland (1966), and was undoubtedly influenced by Vatican II. Two fathers of the Council-the Primate of Poland, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyński, and Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, elected Pope on 16 October 1978-were of key importance to the development of pilgrimages and shrines in Poland.
In the early 1980s, shrines and pilgrimages rapidly developed. This was mainly the consequence of the appointment of the Metropolitan Bishop of Krakow, Cardinal Karol Wojtyła, as the Pope, the apostolic visits of John Paul II to his homeland, and the development of the Divine Mercy devotion, as well as beatifications and canonizations of new Polish saints and beati. The next stage in the history of pilgrimages in Poland began with the 1989 political transformation. As a result, the network of shrines in Poland further developed, new pilgrimage routes were created, and the pilgrimage infrastructure was extended. The following factors seem to be of the greatest importance to the functioning of shrines after 1989: pilgrimage traditions; pastoral attitudes and the entrepreneurial attitudes of custodians/rectors of shrines; the pastoral program of a given shrine; historical, cultural and architectural values; the promotion of shrines in the mass media; the improved accessibility of the shrine to transport routes; and the development of the automotive industry. In 1980, for example, 2,383,000 passenger cars were registered in Poland, with the number more than tripling to 9,991,000 twenty years later (Leszczyńska 2018, p. 263).
In subsequent studies regarding shrines and pilgrimages during the Vatican II era in Poland, attention should be paid to forgotten shrines, the cults of which disappeared during that period. It would certainly be interesting to compare the origins and the functioning of Polish shrines during the Vatican II era with shrines in the countries of Central and Eastern Europe.

Materials and Methods
From in-house studies, including archive queries and library queries, the analysis of sources, and the collection of factual materials, transformations in the pilgrimage space of Poland during the Vatican II era have been determined. Source materials from archives of more than 50 shrines, in more than 20 church archives (diocesan and convent archives) and state archives, and in several Krakow libraries, were used. Official journals published by individual dioceses of the Roman Catholic Church, diocesan annals (also published with other titles: Elenchus, Rocznik, Katalog or Spis) and annals of male and female congregations were important sources of information used to prepare this paper. The catalogue of Rev. Wincent Zaleski titled "Sanktuaria Polskie. Katalog encyklopedyczny miejsc szczególnej czci Osób Trójcy Przenajświętszej, Matki Bożej iŚwiętych Pańskich", (catalog title translated from Polish into English: "Polish Shrines. An Encyclopaedic Catalogue of Sites of Particular Devotion of the Holy Trinity, Mother of God and Saints"), elaborated after the death of its author by Maria and Jacek Łepicki and published in 1988, was a valuable publication used as a point of reference when verifying the list of shrines functioning in 1989. The publication contains a catalogue of Marian shrines, shrines of the Lord, and shrines of saints (Zaleski 1988).
In order to collect information about shrines, apart from basic field research methods such as observations or descriptions based on this researcher's own experience, there was also a need to conduct interviews with shrine custodians, shrine staff, and residents of cities, towns or villages where these shrines are located. Such qualitative data are only briefly mentioned in the article. During the last twenty-five years, the author has conducted field research at more than 400 shrines in Poland.
The materials and statistical data collected during the research were systematized and collated in tabular and graphic form. Cartography was used in the elaboration of both quantitative and qualitative data. The presentation of research problems on maps enabled the author to analyze regularities in the spatial diversity of the examined phenomena. Descriptive-analytical and dynamic-comparative methods were used to analyze research results.