Revisiting Impurity in Republican China: An Evaluation of the Modern Rediscovery of Bujing guan 不 淨 觀 不 淨 觀 不 淨 觀

: During the era of the Republic of China, a number of Buddhists rediscovered early meditation techniques. These practices were mainly revived from canonical scriptures, following a modern text-based approach to Buddhism. Within this framework, speciﬁc attention was devoted to the ‘visualization of the impure’ ( bujing guan 不 淨 觀 , Sk. a´subhabh¯avan¯a ), particularly in the form of the visualization of one’s own body transforming into a putrefying corpse and skeleton. Masters with various backgrounds (Modernist Buddhists, Yog¯ac¯ara scholars, Tiantai 天 台 and tantric masters) wrote articles and guides on this practice, which had the advantage of being common to both H¯ınay¯ana/ ´ Sr¯avakay¯ana and Mah¯ay¯ana. This study considers a selection of modern texts on bujing guan in an attempt to uncover why the meditation on impurity was favored and how it was revived.


Introduction
In the first half of the twentieth century, following the spread of modernist ideas, 1 a rediscovery and reassessment of 'neglected' texts in the Chinese Buddhist canon took place in China. 2 As part of a tendency of reevaluating the Buddha's 'original' teachings, forms of meditation found in the early Chinese scriptures were rediscovered and implemented, the general idea being that of reintegrating them within Chinese Mahāyāna. 3 These 'forgotten' early meditation practices were conceived as fundamental meditative techniques that had the advantage of encompassing both the Hīnayāna/Śrāvakayāna 4 and the Mahāyāna traditions. They were outlined not only in theĀgamas (Ahan jing 阿 含經) and other scriptures belonging to the 'Hīnayāna,' 5 but also in relevant Mahāyāna texts, such as the Yogācārabhūmi (Yuqie shidi lun 瑜伽師地論, T no. 1579) and particularly the fourth chapter on 'Foundation on Meditative Absorption' (Samāhitā bhūmi) 6 as well as the Dazhidu lun 大智度論 (Treatise on the Mahāprajñāpāramitāsūtra, T no. 1509) and in meditation manuals and essays on meditation techniques composed by pre-Chan 禪 masters. 7 The prominent reformist monk Taixu 太虛 (1890Taixu 太虛 ( -1947, for example, stated that 'Zhiyi 智顗 [538-597]'s "Exposition on the Perfection of Dhyāna" [Shi chan boluomi cidi famen 釋禪波羅蜜次第法門, T no. 1916, which outlines these early practices in a systemized and coherent meditative path] was the most comprehensive work on meditation to circulate in China from the Han Dynasty all the way through to the end of the Northern and Southern Dynasties'. 8 Among the rediscovered practices are the 'five gates of meditation' (wu menchan 五 門禪, or wu tingxin 五停心, 'five kinds of mental stabilization'), each of which is suited to practitioners with different temperaments. The five approaches include the visualization of the impure, meant for those who are inclined to lust (tanyu 貪欲, Sk. rāgacarita). 9 Another set of meditation techniques which received great attention is the 'four sites for recollection' (si nianchu/zhu 四念處/住, Sk. catuh . smr . tyupasthāna, Pāli cattāro satipat . t . hāna), whose 'visualization of the body' (guan shen 觀身) includes a meditation on its impurities. 10 The 'visualization of the impure' (bujing guan 不淨觀, Sk. aśubhabhāvanā)-hereafter also referred to as 'meditation on impurity' or 'aśubha meditation'-implies the meditation on the impurities of the body and, in the form that became most relevant in modern times, it involves the meditative observation of the phases of one's own decaying corpse, up to the moment it transforms into a skeleton. 11 In the recent years, the reception and development of this practice in medieval China has been investigated by a number of scholars, most of whom have focused in particular on pre-Chan meditation manuals and Tiantai works. 12 A cursory glance at the occurrences of this practice in Chinese texts composed from the Song dynasty onward suggests that it was not completely abandoned after the advent of Chan. 13 In fact, the practice resurfaced and spread widely among Buddhist practitioners in modern times, and it remains a prominent practice today. As with other early meditation techniques, the meditation on impurity is common both to Hīnayāna/Śrāvakayāna and Mahāyāna. It was particularly enjoined as a way to counter desire or lust, and-like other practices found in early texts-as a useful preliminary practice within the Mahāyāna path. 14 The 'visualization of the impure' was implemented during the era of the Republic of China as an independent practice, as part of the 'five gates,' and as part of the 'contemplation of the body' within the 'four sites for recollection'.
The present study is an attempt to uncover why and how the meditation on impurity was favored and revived. First, it will introduce the practice in connection with Buddhist Modernism by analyzing its occurrence and significance in Taixu's works. Second, it will address the growing interest in visualization practices of impurity in the 1930s through a selection of texts penned by modern Chinese Buddhists of different inclinations (Yogācāra, Tiantai 天台, and tantric). Finally, it will provide a close reading of a long essay on the topic by Taixu's disciple Tanxuan 談玄 (d.u.), which offers a detailed overview of the canonical literature on aśubha meditation available at the time and proves particularly telling with regard to the variety of the forms of the practice and of the different Buddhist groups involved in its implementation.

Paving the Path: Taixu 太虛 太虛 太虛 and the Role of Buddhist Modernism
In his essay titled 'The features of Chinese Buddhism lie in Dhyāna' (Zhongguo foxue tezhi zai chan 中國佛學特質在禪), a fundamental work for understanding the role of meditation within his system, Taixu distinguishes between 'tathāgata chan' (rulaichan 如來 禪), i.e., meditative techniques received directly from the Buddha, and 'patriarchal chan' (zushichan 祖師禪), which refers to the form of meditation developed by the patriarchs of Chan Buddhism. 15 The former includes the 'five gates to meditation,' and thus aśubha meditation as a practice suitable for those who have a propensity toward lust (Taixu, 1943).
For Taixu, meditative techniques predating Chan (including aśubha meditation) were not meant to replace Chan practices. Rather, he was implementing them in order to return Buddhist meditation practices in China to a state of completeness. This attitude had already been expressed in one of his early lectures on 'The essentials of the Buddha vehicle, i.e., Pure Buddhadharma' (Fosheng zong yao lun. Chunzheng de fofa 佛乘宗要論-純正的佛 法), which was delivered in Guangzhou in 1921. In it, Taixu places aśubha meditation in the context of Hīnayāna practices, which aimed at 'having a comprehensive view of impermanence, suffering and emptiness, no-self, and impurity' (wuchang kukong wuwo bujing 無常苦空無我不凈), and are related to the 'four sites for recollection' (si nianzhu). 16 Under the title 'One's own and others' bodies are all impure' (zita yiqie shen bujing 自他一 切身不淨), Taixu explains the notion of bujing/aśubha in a manner that echoes the relevant canonical texts. The description reads as follows: Purity implies beauty. We are used to having this body, which we love without recognizing that it is ugly. But when seen from the Hīnayāna practice of recollection, there is nothing beautiful in it from start to end. At the very beginning, the body is formed in the womb from the union of the father's essence and the mother's blood; in this there is no purity or beauty that one can talk about. Neither is there any cleanliness or purity when the body comes into the world, leaving behind manure and dirt and shedding snot and urine. Then, when it grows up in good shape and glowing with health, it appears to be beautiful. However, when we examine it in detail, on the outside there is only sweat, dirt, and grease which do not vanish even if bathed, resulting in millions of microscopic insects continuingly gnawing at our skin day and night. On the inside, the five pungent roots and various other impurities are stored. Thus, neither in-nor outside is there anything pure and beautiful. This seemingly beautiful thing is only a bubble-like perceived object, self-defiled visual consciousness; let alone when one considers that the twilight of life approaches in the twinkling of an eye, and that this seemingly beautiful bubble cannot be held for long. At that point, blood and breath become weak and the vital spirit decreases, the hair greys, the teeth fall, the flesh becomes thin and the skin yellow, all kinds of diseases break out and there are signs that the four elements will soon dissipate. When the warmth and consciousness of a lifespan is over, first the color changes, followed by flesh and skin; then pus and blood mix and spread, and bones, muscles, and ashes are scattered. If there is something left, it surely is not pure or beautiful. This way we know that our material body is impure from the beginning of its existence down to its extinction. If we extend this from ourselves to others, we will see that the same is true for all of us. Thus, the dearly loved mundane material body, which does not halt to cause defilements and create evil karma, is really meaningless. Taixu, 1921) Aśubha meditation is again mentioned in the same text by (Taixu, 1921), always within the Hīnayāna section, as part of the 'thirty-seven practices for the attainment of enlightenment' (sanshiqi buti fen 三十七菩提分). 17 The main aim of the text is that of reconciling Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna in the name of the 'true and pure Dharma.' In such a context, Taixu urges a reevaluation of the 'Hīnayāna' (xiaosheng 小乘)-defined as a conventional term for the two vehicles of theŚrāvakas and Pratyekabuddhas, which in turn should not be despised-together with its practices.
Other details about aśubha meditation are included in Taixu's lectures on particular canonical scriptures. For instance, in 1934 Taixu lectured on the 'Sūtra on the Eight Kinds of Attentiveness of Great Persons' (Foshuo ba da ren jue jing jiangji 佛說八大人覺經講記, T no. 779), 18 where aśubha meditation is part of the 'four sites for recollection '. 19 As for the Mahāyāna interpretation of the practice, it is worth mentioning Taixu's lecture on the 'Contemplation on the Mind Ground Sūtra' (Xindi guan jing 心地觀經, T no. 159), a text focused on Mahāyāna renunciants (i.e., Bodhisattva bhiks . us). 20 Aśubha meditation is presented in the seventh chapter on 'being disgusted with the body' (yan shen 厭身) as one of the practices common to the three vehicles (sansheng gong fa 三乘共法). Featuring Maitreya as interlocutor of the Buddha, the chapter explains the various forms of aśubha meditation while also including the Mahāyāna approach, i.e., references to the body as empty, as well as to its preciousness as a means of carrying oneself and others to the other shore, and thus in connection with the Bodhisattva path.
In short, Taixu's interest in the meditation on impurity does not imply any preference for the early meditation techniques, nor did he put any particular emphasis on aśubha meditation when compared to the other practices. However, it was precisely this modernist inclination of aiming for completeness in Buddhist practices that paved the way for its emergence as a favorite practice of some of the other masters.

The Visualization of the Impure in Modern China
A number of articles published in various Buddhist periodicals of the Republican era, particularly during the 1930s, suggests that there was a surge of interest in aśubha meditation at that time. These articles contain reprints of early canonical and extra-canonical texts, as well as new explanations and commentaries. This section offers an overview of these and other materials produced by a few relevant Republican Buddhist masters, focusing on a long article by Tanxuan.

Practicing Bujing Guan in the 1930s: An Overview
Considering the importance attached by Zhiyi to the early meditation techniques, it is not surprising to find modern Tiantai masters among the advocates of aśubha meditation. Xianming 顯明 (1917Xianming 顯明 ( -2007, for instance, wrote an article supporting this practice as a way to counter desire and describing it as a fundamental technique that formed the basis of the four dhyānas (Xianming, 1936). As in the case of Taixu and other masters, Xianming highlights the universal nature of the practice, which is 'common to both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna.' The article's title, 'On visualizing impurity to counter desire' (Bujing guan duizhi tanyu 不淨觀對治貪欲) is a possible quotation of Zhiyi's words (T no. 1915: 467b01-2). 21 Xianming's article was published in the 31st issue of the Buddhist journal Hongfa kan 弘法刊 and was followed by an article by Zhaowu 照悟 (1936). The latter's title is a quotation of a common definition of the first of the 'five gates' (Duo tan zhongsheng bujing guan 多貪眾 生不淨觀: 'The visualization of the impure for the living beings that have a predominance of lust'). Using the practice as a way to counter desire is also described by Daqu 答劬 (1936), who presents details about its different forms, distinguishing between the visualization of one's own and another's impurity. The efficacy of the visualization of the impure to counter desire and its connection with the 'four sites for recollection' was further illustrated by the Yogācāra scholar Zhou Shujia 周叔迦 (1943).
The 'nine meditations of the visualization of the impure' (bujing guan jiuxiang 不淨觀 九想)-followed by a meditation on the skeleton emitting light-were also taught in the 1930s by the tantric master Nenghai 能海 (1886Nenghai 能海 ( -1967, who integrated the meditation on impurity into his handbook for basic meditation. 31 I will delve into this particular case as an example of the actual practice of the visualization of the impure in modern times. The aśubha meditation is part of a series of visualizations within a sequential meditative path; it is typically introduced by the 'meditation on death' (sixiang 死想) and is followed by the 'meditation on the white bones' (baigu xiang 白骨想). The meditation on death reads: Visualize your body while it is cooling down and the vital energy is receding; the body becomes rigid: it is a corpse now. 觀想自身 ， 身冷氣絕 ， 肢體僵直 ， 現前便是一具死屍 。 (Nenghai, 1946) The nine meditations are listed as follows: 1. 'Swelling' (pang 膀); 2. 'Tumefaction' (zhang 脹); 3. 'Blue [stains]' (qing 青); 4. 'Stasis of blood' (yu 瘀); 5. 'Decay' (huai 壞); 6. 'Spread of blood' (xuetu 血塗); 7. 'Pus' (nong 膿); 8. 'Decomposition' (lan 爛); 9. 'Maggots' (qu 蛆). While this list does not perfectly match any of the extant canonical lists, the explanation of the nine meditations closely follows the contents of the above quoted texts. 32 At the same time, by referring to the Chinese heroes Liu Bang 劉邦  and Xiang Yu 項羽 (232-202 BCE) or to a modern object such as a light bulb, Nenghai adds a personal touch to the received tradition: Visualize one's body as if deceased for a few days, as it slowly degenerates and smells bad. Initially, the skin becomes purple and starts to swell and bloat; after a while, blue stains begin to appear until blood comes out and the whole body assumes a dark purple color. The skin starts to decay and rot, and bad blood colors the whole skeleton. Dead blood becomes pus, while the flesh and the internal organs decompose, falling to pieces. Among the blood and the rotten flesh, worms are born; they crawl around and eat the remaining flesh. When they are done, they transform into moths and fly far away (this type of visualization is helpful in case of diseases; one can visualize worms eating at the bruises by concentrating on the areas of sickness). The body is now just a white skeleton. Next, visualize relatives and friends also as skeletons. If Liu Bang's and Xiang Yu's bones could be together, do you think they would still be at war with each other? The conflicts between us and our enemies are certainly not as serious as those between the two generals: if we all become skeletons [in the end], why should we fight [now]? Nenghai, 1946) At this point comes the visualization of the 'white bones emitting light' (baigu liuguang xiang 白骨流光想), the title of which is a quotation derived from canonical material (e.g., Zhiyi's T no. 1916: 500b08-09): Concentrate on your body, now a skeleton, and recognize that passions, desire, and rage vanish. Visualize the skeleton: every single part of it emits a soft white light, similar to pure jade. Inside each bone there is a flaming red string like the incandescent string in a light bulb. Gradually the light is projected toward the outside, and a sphere of pure white light embraces the body. (The dimensions of the sphere depend on each practitioner's experience. Beginners visualize the diameter of the sphere with the length of their arm. During each new practice, the sphere gradually spreads out until it embraces the whole universe. The growth of the sphere follows certain parameters: each time, the sphere increases by an arm's length. It gradually holds a room, a palace, a village, a city, a state, a continent, etc. If the process were not gradual, it would become impossible to project the light to embrace the entire universe: one would not be able to increase its size. This type of meditation can cure bone diseases and reinforce the bone structure). Nenghai, 1946) In Nenghai's meditation sequence, one then focuses on the red string inside the bones, the light slowly turning into white flesh, which evolves into the reappearance of the body as a young and healthy sixteen-year-old. This is the transformation of oneself into Mañjuśrī, which is part of tantric deity yoga and has no further relevance to our topic (Bianchi 2001, pp. 149-50).
The growing interest in visualization of impurity practices during the 1930s is well documented in a long and learned article by Tanxuan, who promotes the visualization of the impure among his contemporaries and, in an attempt to legitimize it, traces occurrences of this practice throughout the Buddhist Canon (fromĀgamas and Abhidharma to Mahāyāna scriptures and more recent Chinese texts). The following is an in-depth analysis of this relevant source.

Tanxuan 談玄's Essay on the Visualization of the Impure
This article by Tanxuan, who had studied Esoteric Buddhism in Japan 33 and later enrolled in the World Buddhist Academy (Shijie foxueyuan 世界佛學苑) founded by Taixu in Wuhan, was published in 1936 by the Wuchang Academy (Wuchang foxueyuan 武昌佛 學院). It is addressed to Buddhist renunciants as a guide on how to work with this useful tool to counter sensual desire (aiyu 愛欲): For those who leave home to pursue the path, the visualization of the impure is the best way to counter desire. If one succeeds in this visualization, all female appearances resembling jade or flowers will come to be a leather bags full of dirt. You should know that those white lotus faces are nothing but skulls covered with flesh and that beautiful young ladies are only leaking toilets dressed up with clothes. Is there anything to crave that one can talk about? I will thus describe the visualization of the impure on the basis of the sacred scriptures.
出家學道對治貪欲,修不淨觀,第一良方 。 此觀若成,疑?對如玉如花之貌,全成革囊 聚穢之物 。 須知芙蓉百面,盡是帶肉骷髏,美貌紅妝,也不過裝衣漏?,有何貪愛之可 言哉!是故依?聖言量,述不淨觀 。 (Tanxuan, 1936, p. 36) After this preliminary statement about the practice's target and objectives, Tanxuan explains the 'name of the practice' by making a distinction between two different forms. The meditation on one's own bodily impurities (zixiangjing 自相境) includes a description of the visualization of the seven types of impurities, i.e., impurity of the seed, of parental intercourse, of the womb, of maternal blood, of birth, of the body covered by a thin skin and full of pus and blood, and of one's own corpse, which is quoted nearly verbatim, without referencing it, from Zhiyi's Jingtu shiyi lun 淨土十疑論 (T no. 1961: 80c14-23). On the impurities of one's own body, Tanxuan also quotes the Prajñāpāramitāsūtra 34 and the Dazhidu lun. 35 The second form is the contemplation of the common impurities (gongxiangjing 共相境); it consists in extending the awareness of one's own impurities to the external world, and is presented through a long quotation from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma. 36 The examples mainly refer to the contemplation of the impurities of the internal parts of a living body; in the following, however, Tanxuan focuses more on the visualization of a decaying corpse. 37 In the third part of the article, Tanxuan offers an interesting 'brief history of the visualization of the impure,' meant to give evidence of its orthodox origins. Tanxuan takes us back to the scene of BuddhaŚākyamuni under the bodhi tree as he was tempted by 'beautiful ladies' sent to him in order to test his determination (unreferenced quotation from the 'Sūtra in Forty-two Sections,' Sishierzhang jing 四十二章經, T no. 784: 723b08-10). This is followed by quotations from texts focused on the same event that include descriptions of the filthy and impure bodies of the daughters of Māra, 38 a reminder of the fact that the main objective of the practice is that of helping renunciants to counter sensual desire. The focus then turns to the scene of the Buddha in Vaiśālī, urging the bhiks . us to practice aśubha meditation by visualizing one's own decomposing corpse (unreferenced quotation from the Vinaya of the Mahīśāsaka, T no. 1421: 7a27-b03), and other accounts of the Buddha teaching aśubha meditation taken from the same vinaya text 39 and from theŚūram . gama. The latter is one of the first Mahāyāna scriptures to appear in the article, and it serves to connect the practice with the doctrine of emptiness. As evidence of the enduring nature of the practice over the centuries, Tanxuan then quotes a commentary on the Ekōttarāgama (T no. 1507.25: 40b06-15) that deals with Aśoka's brother meditating in a cemetery. 40 The fourth part of the article explains the three different ways of practicing the visualization of the corpse in a cemetery according to the Mahāvibhās .ā , 41 namely the abridged practice for beginners, the extended practice for mature practitioners, and a third form of practice for expert practitioners. The text is reported almost verbatim from the canonical text (T no. 1545: 205b13-c18). Using another quotation from the same text (T no. 1545: 840a26-b10), Tanxuan explains that this practice is called 'common visualization' (gongxiangguan 共相觀) because it is common to the two vehicles as well as to male and female practitioners.
The fifth section, devoted to 'diverse visualizations' (biexiangguan 別相觀), introduces a concern regarding gender distinction in the practice. The 'visualization of the impure for men to counter women' (nan dui nü zhi bujing guan 男對女之不淨觀) begins with a quotation from the 'Scripture on the Methods of Censuring Sexual Desire' (He seyu fa jing 訶色欲法經, T no. 615: 0286a19-21, and 286a29-b01) describing women as obstacles to the practice, followed by the unreferenced quotation of Daoxuan 道宣 (596-667)'s description of the 'ten evils of women' and admonition to keep them at a distance in order to purify one's mind (T no. 1893: 824a12-c02). 42 Finally, the impurity of a woman's body is described by means of other quotations, such as a passage from a dhāran .ī sūtra on the five types of bugs concealed in a woman's body, 43 and a discussion on the overall impurity of a female body from a meditation manual titled 'Scripture on the Secrets of Meditation' (Chan miyao jing 禪祕要經). 44 The 'visualization of the impure for women to counter men' (nü dui nan zhi bujing guan 女對男之不淨觀) begins with the common saying, 'Beautiful ladies are surely impure; how then could all men be pure?' (hongfenjiaren, gu duo bujing, yiqie nanren, you he jing hu 紅粉佳人,固多不淨,一切男人,又何淨乎?) (Tanxuan, 1936, p. 41). Men as well, Tanxuan tells us, are nothing but skulls covered with flesh, living ghosts with stiff corpses. Thus, as with women, also in the case of men there is no beauty to speak of. As evidence for this saying, Tanxuan quotes the 'Sūtra of the Mātaṅga Girl' (Modengnü jing 摩鄧女經, T no. 551: 0895b23-c02), featuring a dialogue between the Buddha and this girl, who was in love withĀnanda, and whom the Buddha showed the impurities (tears, mucus, saliva, faces, and urine, etc.) inĀnanda's body. 45 Finally, a relevant passage from the 'Scripture on the Secrets of Meditation' is quoted, reinforcing the idea of the many impure and polluted substances in a man's body (T no. 620: 335c20-336a02). 46 The sixth part of the article addresses the method of the practice (bujing guan zhi xiufa 不淨觀之修法): When practicing the visualization of the impure, one may go to a cemetery, or sit under a tree, or in a pure abode. Sitting cross-legged, one enters into correct contemplation, proceeding from the visualization of a just deceased corpse to that of white bones. One gets familiar with the practice and clearly distinguishes the objects of the sequence till there is nothing left but the white bones, at which point the visualization changes. One may visualize flesh growing on the white bones, or light emitting from the white bones, or may blow a breath of air so as to crush the white bones. One may also set the fire of the syllable ra alight and burn out one's bodily impurity. 47 The variations of this visualization practice have no limit. 修不淨觀時,或趣塚間,或坐樹下,或於淨室 。 跏趺而坐,入正思惟,自新死觀,至白骨 觀 。 次第熟練,了了分明,除白骨外,一無所有,至此轉觀;或觀白骨生肌,或觀白骨放 光,或自吹氣一口,白骨粉碎 。 或起囉字之火,燒熒?自身不淨,變化修觀,亦無窮矣 。 (Tanxuan, 1936, p. 42) This gives us an idea of the ways the visualization of the impure was being practiced during Tanxuan's time. First of all, it points to forms of imaginative visualization of the corpse under a tree or inside a Buddhist abode, such as had become common in medieval China (Greene 2021b, 27). Reference to the practice by means of an actual corpse in a cemetery may simply mirror the contents of early texts, since to my knowledge there is no evidence of aśubha meditation being practiced in cemeteries in Republican China. On a speculative basis, one could also hypothesize an awareness of the performance of the practice on charnel grounds by Tibetan practitioners, at a time when the spread of Tibetan Buddhism in China was at its apex (e.g., see Chen 2008). Second, the visualization of the white bones is described according to different variations and seemingly also includes a reference to a tantric version of the practice (i.e., the focus on the syllable ra), which Tanxuan may have encountered during his esoteric training in Japan.
This short but significant paragraph is followed by a detailed description of the images to visualize. Interestingly, for what seems to be the highlight of his article, Tanxuan combines the version found in the late-Qing 'morality book' Bu ke lu, which had been republished a decade earlier by Yinguang, and Qing dynasty master Shengyan's verses in the 'Ode on the visualization of the impure.' Tanxuan reports, nearly verbatim, the whole sequence from the Bu ke lu, introduced by wei 謂 but without referencing it, while he openly references Shengyan's ode (but only includes eight images of the latter's sequence, omitting the fourth image, and adding the meditation on the moment of death, which in Shengyan's original is not part of the sequence). This combination of the two pre-modern descriptions of the 'nine images' reads as follows: 48 1. Visualize the image of a newly diseased. [Bu ke de, 1]: Meditate (jingguan 靜 觀) on a person who has just died, lying stiff on the back, cold air piercing to the bones, not knowing anything. You should observe that your greedy and luxurious body in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will naturally fade away. Master Shengyan's verses [0] read: What is loved eventually leaves forever; it is so miserable that one cannot bear to behold it. Consciousness leaves the body and the corpse is already in the empty coffin! The night fire in the unoccupied hall is cold, the autumn wind blows on the mourning curtain: I advise you, Sir, while still alive, to meditate on the moment of death.
觀新死想 。 (1)謂靜觀初死之人,正直仰臥,寒氣徹骨,一無所知,當觀我貪財變色之 身,將來亦必如是,則婬心自然淡矣 。 (0)省庵法師頌曰:«所愛竟長別,淒涼不忍看;識 裁離故體,尸已下空棺!夜火堂冷,秋風素幔寒:勸君身在日,先作死時觀» 。 2. Visualize the image of bluish stasis of blood. [Bu ke de, 2]: Meditate on a corpse not yet prepared for burial; within a week, black fluids rise and overflow, and it turns into dark purple, really fearsome. You should recollect that your own body, as beautiful as flowers, in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan's verses [2] read: Long blows the wind, and the sun burns blue and yellow-how pitiful; the skin dries like an orange when it begins to rot, and the bones decay like half-withered beams. Ears are gone while the nose is still there, tendons and bones are broken and yet joined; a petrified person who does not talk: for all this, shed your tears!
Visualize the image of pus and blood. [Bu ke de, 3]: Meditate on a dead person, first the rotten flesh decays into pus, which is about to break through, while intestines and stomach erode. You should recollect that your graceful and elegant body in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan's verses [1] read: Drums within the wind, in a flash the swelling increases; the body is like a water bag, and the stomach resembles a broken vine gourd. Dirt and grease on the skin like ashes and coal, flies and maggots gather messily like sand; in the past you were deceived by your thin skin, now regret the mistake of those former years. Meditate on a putrefying corpse, after it has been lying for a long time, a yellowish liquid flows out, giving off an unbearable stench. You should recollect that your body, with its fragrant and clean skin, in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [3] stated: Once skin and muscles drop off, the shape is damaged: half-open flesh like a split gourd, a snake trying to burrow out of the intestines. Twined messy hair like withered vines, and rotten clothes like waterfall moss; send a note to the beautiful ladies: do not paint that manure bag. Meditate on a corpse that has been decaying for a long time, worms grow all over the body, they crawl around and gnaw inside the bones, it is like a beehive. You should recollect that the body of your beautiful spouse in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [6] stated: The corpse is being devoured, a few spots are finished; the hungry belly of a crow does not fill, and it is difficult to dry the saliva of a greedy dog. Back then you loved yourself in vain, who would have pity today? Not equal to pork or lamb meat, [your flesh] may be worth just a few coins.
觀蟲噉想 。 (5)謂靜觀積久腐屍 ， 遍體生蟲 ， 處處鑽嚙骨節之內 ， 皆如蜂窠 。 當 念我鸞儔鳳侶之身 ， 將來亦必如是 ， 則婬心淡矣 。 (6)省庵曰:«尸骸遭噉食,方寸 少完全:不飽飢烏腹,難乾饞狗涎 。 當年空自愛,此日有誰憐?不若 羊肉,猶堪值幾 錢» 。 6. Visualize the image of coiling tendons. [Bu ke de, 6]: Meditate that, when the skin and flesh of a rotten corpse have been gnawed completely, only tendons are left attached to the bones, like ropes binding firewood so that it does not fall apart. You should recollect that your philandering body in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [5] stated: The thin skin is like torn paper glued together, and the rotten flesh like discarded stale soup; pus and blood break through from within, while flies and maggots fight from outside. By eating pig intestines, it becomes easy to vomit, and dog urine is difficult to wash clean; if not by profound abhorrence, how can you break your delusion?
Visualize the image of scattered bones. [Bu ke de, 7]: Meditate on a dead body, once the tendons rot and decay, the bones are scattered crisscrossed, no longer staying in one place. You should recollect that your exalted and precious body in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [7] stated: The four limbs suddenly divide and scatter, where does a whole body come from? You not only lose your appearance, at the same time your name also becomes empty. As for duration, observe the autumn grass, and in terms of abundance, ask the evening breeze; I request you, Sir, to pay close attention, this matter is detailed and exhaustive.
觀骨散想 。 (7)謂靜觀死屍 ， 筋已爛壞 ， 骨節縱橫 ， 不在一處 。 當念我崇高富貴 之身 ， 將來亦必如是 ， 則婬心淡矣 。 (7)省庵曰:«四體忽分散,一身何所從?豈唯姿 態失,兼亦姓名空 。 長短看秋草,穠纖問晚風;請君高著眼,此事細推窮» 。 8. Visualize the image of dry bones. [Bu ke de, 9]: Meditate on the abandoned bones in a broken tomb, hit by sun and rain, their color turns white, or yellowish again, trampled by humans and beasts. You should recollect that your body, with its beautiful youth easily fading away, in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [8] stated: Skin and flesh have melted and disappeared, only the bones remain; rain adds color to moss, water soaks the sand marks. Involving many insects and collecting few descendants, where does passionate love take you to? Feel profound grief for the unreturned soul! 觀枯骨想 。 (9)謂靜觀破塚棄骨 ， 日暴雨侵 ， 其色轉白 ， 或復黃朽 ， 人獸踐踏 。 當 念我韶光易邁之身 ， 將來亦必如是 ， 則婬心淡矣 。 (8)省庵曰:«皮肉已銷鑠,唯餘 骨尚存,雨添苔蘚色,水浸土沙痕 。 牽挽多蟲蟻,收藏少子孫,風流何處去?愁殺未歸 魂!» 。 9. Visualize the image of being burnt. [Bu ke de, 8]: Meditate on a dead body, having been burnt by fire, it is scorched and shrunken on the ground; be it cooked or raw, it is always an unbearable sight. You should recollect that your unparalleled body in the future will also be like this. Hence lust will fade away. Shengyan [9] stated: Raging flames lean on the dry bones, and in a flash, they burn vigorously; red flames in the sky, black smoke on the trees. Be aware that all ends in ashes, and the true mind that very day is suspended. If you wish to go beyond the sam . sāra path, you should study this meditation carefully.
The 'final remarks' of the article consist in a number of new quotations, which deserve close consideration because they allow for a connection between the described practice and the Bodhisattva ideal. The first quotation is taken from another well-known morality book which was promoted by Yinguang. Penned by the Qing dynasty Buddhist layman Zhou Mengyan 周夢顏 (1656-1739, styled Anshi 安士), 49 it clearly reveals a Mahāyāna concern: If this visualization is accomplished, it will remove the very root of sensual desire (aiyin 愛婬). I vow that in my future existence I will sweep away the armies of Māra, and that, transforming the body in unmeasurable Buddha ks . etras, I will broadly benefit all sentient beings. Tanxuan, 1936, p. 43) This is followed by a quotation from the 'Scripture on the Secrets of Meditation' promising rebirth in the heaven of the future Buddha Maitreya. Rebirth in Maitreya's heaven is a typical feature of fifth century meditation manuals, as has been recently demonstrated by Eric M. Greene, 50 and its appearance here may also be related to the cult of Maitreya followed by Taixu and his disciples (Ritzinger 2017a). The quotation ends with the following words: Furthermore, one who fixes his thoughts and carefully contemplates, and then comes to see, all the white bones of his body, will at the end of his life be reborn in the Tus . ita heaven where he will meet Maitreya (tr. Greene 2021b, p. 169). 若復有人 ， 繫念諦觀 ， 見舉身白骨 。 此人命終 ， 生兜率陀天 ， 見彌勒佛 。 (T no. 613: 254c10-11, quoted in Tanxuan, 1936, p. 43) 51 Finally, after a few canonical verses reiterating the value of this practice for countering sensual desire, 52 Tanxuan provides a list of the relevant canonical sources, including reference to the chapters (juan 卷) where the practice is presented. 53 This table of references is worthy of mention as a reminder of the sources available for this practice in the 1930s (see Appendix A).
As we have seen, Tanxuan gives large quotations of a great variety of texts in the main body of the article. These and a number of other scriptures are referenced in the final table. Among Tanxuan's primary sources are meditation manuals, such as the 'Scripture on the Methods of Censuring Sexual Desire' (Chanyao heyu jing 禪要訶欲經, T no. 609, juan 1), a locus classicus for this practice, and other meditation manuals of the fifth century. 54 Early Buddhist texts includeĀgamas and a variety of vinaya literature, including the Shanjianlü piposha 善見律毘婆沙, referenced as a translation from the Pāli. 55 Quotations from Mahāyāna sūtras are from the Prajñāpāramitā corpus and a few other texts.Śāstra references span from the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma 56 to the Srāvakabhūmi 57 and the Dazhidu lun. 58 As for tantric texts, Tanxuan particularly quotes a commentary on the Vairocanābhisam . bodhitantra. 59 In general, canonical sources of works by Chinese masters are quoted without referencing them, as in the notable case of Zhiyi's works on meditation. 60 This detailed list of references seemingly aims at giving full legitimacy to the aśubha meditation from the perspective of the Buddhist tradition as a whole.

Final Remarks
The rediscovery of the aśubha meditation, together with other early meditation techniques, has been presented in this article as both a result and a sign of the spread of modernist ideas into China. In these final remarks I will try to elucidate how and to what extent the analytical category 'Buddhist modernism' may be useful in capturing the phenomenon under discussion. 61 I will mainly refer to Tanxuan's essay, as it offers both an overview and a close look into some of the relevant features of the rediscovery of the visualization of the impure in modern China.
The most common themes developed by the various forms of Buddhist modernisms include the adoption of a text-oriented approach and a modern notion of Buddhism as a world religion, the search for a 'pure' and 'original' Buddhism, an emphasis on meditation, discourses on gender equality, and the establishment of modern forms of education for the Buddhist clergy. 62 Tanxuan's long essay reveals traces of all the mentioned modernist aspects. A disciple of Taixu, Tanxuan was a modern scholar monk with an interest in 'forgotten' teachings and practices and with a marked preference for a textoriented approach. Not only does his article reveal a rediscovery of early texts within the Buddhist Canon, it also includes a wide array of scriptures, striking us as a true example of the modern monastic education propagated by Taixu and his fellow monks, which by itself reveals an understanding of Buddhism as a world religion. The numerous sources he is able to quote represent all of the main genres present in the Buddhist Canon, because, as he declares himself, 'the visualization of the impure is discussed in detail in both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna sūtras, vinayas, andśāstras,' 63 ranging fromĀgamas to Tantras. Tanxuan's modernity also emerges through other aspects. First, it is interesting to note that he shows an awareness-even if only a modicum-of gender distinctions, separately addressing female practitioners, at a time when gender had become 'a useful category' in Chinese religions (Valussi 2019). Finally, and more significantly, Tanxuan, who was himself engaged in the revival of the so-called 'Tang Tantrism' (Tangmi 唐密), gives us an idea of the varieties of the visualization of the impure as practiced during his time, when different traditions within the early meditation practices were being revived-marking a new trend in modern Tiantai and Yogācāra approaches to meditation-and new ones were spreading in response to the surge of interest in Japanese and Tibetan tantrism. This latter aspect reflects a modern understanding of Buddhism as a world religion, which favored both the acceptance of other forms of Buddhist practice and the integration of early forgotten teachings in the bosom of the Chinese Mahāyāna.
However, it is my conviction that to fully understand modern forms of Buddhism, one should not only focus on the novel modernist themes resulting from the encounter with Western modernities; rather one should also consider the resilience and vitality of 'concomitant religious phenomena centered on local and long-established practices, rituals, and ways of relating to Buddhist scriptures' (Bianchi and Campo forthcoming). In Tanxuan's essay, we find traces also of this more local approach, such as in the reference to morality books or other pre-modern Chinese materials. It is particularly in these quotations and references that Tanxuan reveals an interest which goes beyond a mere scholarly approach. On the contrary, he strikes us as a sincere promoter of the actual practice of the visualization of the impure, particularly addressing his essay to 'those who leave home to pursue the path,' as he clarifies from the very incipit of his text. From this perspective, what might otherwise seem like a mere display of erudition serves the objective of legitimizing a form of practice that the contemporary saṅgha may not always be in favor of.
On a general note, distinguishing the masters interested in aśubha meditation according to their doctrinal inclinations and predilections enables us to observe how, within a general modern trend of re-evaluating the whole range of Buddhist teachings, different approaches emerged where modern themes coexisted with more conservative or local inclinations. Notably, Tiantai masters mainly referred to Zhiyi's works (whose main canonical source is the Dazhidu lun) or to later Tiantai-related materials. By contrast, other masters, displaying a more markedly 'modernist' attitude, preferred to turn to texts with Indian origins, and masters interested in tantric Buddhism also referred to tantric scriptures and traditions. 64 The shared feature of the rediscovery of the aśubha meditation, at least in the cases presented above, seems to be that the visualization of the impure was framed within a Mahāyāna context. Ultimately, as it was for Taixu, the meditation on impurity was implemented as 'one of the practices common to the three vehicles,' and as such it was legitimized for the modern Chinese Buddhist practitioners. 2 I wish to thank Michel Mohr for inviting me to contribute to this special issue on "Impurity Revisited: Contemplative Practices, Textual Sources, and Visual Representations in Asian Religions" and for his support and valuable suggestions. I am also indebted to an anonymous reviewer for the insightful criticism and useful proposals.

3
The present article includes only a brief outline of the general background in which the rediscovery of bujing guan transpired. For a presentation on the phenomenon of the rediscovery of early meditation techniques in modern Chinese Buddhism, see Bianchi (forthcoming). 4 On the use of Hīnayāna, Pāli Buddhism, South, and South-East Asian Buddhism or Southern Buddhism,Śrāvakayāna, and other expressions as alternatives to Theravāda, see Anālayo (2003, pp. 223-28). On the corresponding Chinese terminology, with a focus on modernity, see Bianchi (forthcoming). 5 This 'Hīnayāna' literature was preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon but was previously regarded as inferior and had been classified at the bottom of the panjiao 判教 systems since the Sui and Tang dynasties. On the rediscovery of theĀgamas by modern Chinese Buddhists, see Travagnin and Anālayo (2020). 6 The Yogācārabhūmi itself was reevaluated in modern China and considered a scripture representing the 'original' Mahāyāna. For more information on the role of the Yogācāra tradition within recent developments in Chinese Buddhism, see Makeham (2014). For further details about the importance of the Yogācārabhūmi in twentieth-century Chinese scholastic Buddhism, see Aviv (2013). 7 The 'Treatise on the Path to Liberation' (Jietuo daolun 解脫道論, Pāli *Vimuttimagga; T no. 1648, Chinese translation attributed to Sam . ghabhara/Sam . ghapāla, early sixth c.), one of very few extant Chinese translations of Pāli works, was also 'rediscovered.' Since the comparable Visuddhimagga would not be translated into Chinese until 1981(Ye, 1981, this text was regarded as the main reference for early meditation techniques within the Theravāda tradition during the Republican era. Awareness of the existence of this text was stimulated in Japan by articles published by the scholar Nagai Makoto . See Jaffe (2019, pp. 211-35). In China, lay-Buddhist scholar Lü Cheng 呂澂 (1896-1989 determined that the *Vimuttimagga was one of the few texts of the Southern traditions to reach China and suggested that the Visuddhimagga was based on this earlier text (Lü 1996).
For an overview on the *Vimuttimagga, see Crosby (1999). For a comparison with the Visuddhimagga, see Anālayo (2009). The *Vimuttimagga is not treated in the present study, as I found no evidence of any modern master referring to it for the visualization of the impure in the material I was able to collect. 8 See Taixu (1943), quoted in Wang (2009, p. 158). On the Shi chan boluomi cidi famen, see Greene (2021a, p. 114f) and Wang (2001).
In the present study, the term chan 禪 (Sk. dhyāna) is mainly employed to refer to forms of meditation predating the emergence of Chan Buddhism. The latter will only be addressed occasionally, when referring to the Chan school itself or to the form of meditation developed by the Chan masters, i.e. the so-called 'patriarchal chan' (zushichan 祖師禪) mentioned by Taixu (see below, note 15).

11
Eric M. Greene (2016Greene ( , 2021a argues that the term 'visualization' may not fully capture the phenomenology of these practices: 'visualization, a concept coined in the nineteenth century by experimental psychologists, implies a degree of willful control that is usually inappropriate in the context of the visionary experiences aimed for in medieval Chinese Buddhist meditation practices' (Greene 2021a, p. 94, note 67). More specifically, Green notices that the object to be 'visualized' should not be seen as a mental representation phenomenologically corresponding to ordinary sight; in addition, he observes that these practices result in confirmatory experiences that can be better understood as 'visions' rather than visualizations. This notwithstanding, in the present study I have followed the convention of translating guan 觀 as 'visualization,' by which I imply the imaginatory observation of the described object (the decaying corpse) by the practitioner. I only occasionally touch upon confirmatory visions. 12 Particularly, the 'Special Issue on Impurity Revisited' (Religion, 11 and 12), includes contributions addressing Chinese Buddhism or Chinese materials by Dhammajoti (2021), Kritzer (2020), and Mohr (2020). For the meditation on impurity in Chinese Buddhist texts, see also Greene (2006Greene ( , 2014Greene ( , 2016, and the two recent monographies, Greene 2021a, 2021b) and Radich (2019). General descriptions of aśubha meditation are provided by Dhammajoti (2009) and, with reference to the Pāli Satipat . t . hāna, Anālayo (2003, pp. 152-55). For the practice in Theravāda Buddhism, see also Bond (1980). For the Gandhāran early Yogācāra context, see Stuart (2015, vol. 1, pp. 505-8). For the Khotanese Mahāyāna context, see Martini (2011). 13 The practice of bujing guan by Chinese Buddhists during and after the Song dynasty is a topic that deserves further investigation. Among the texts where it is explained are the following: X no. 976 (Song), X no. 250 (Yuan), X no. 0877 (Yuan), T no. 1939 (Ming), X no. 1162 (Ming), X no. 1549 (Qing), etc. Significantly, many of these texts are related to the Tiantai tradition. 14 For the interfusion of Mahāyāna elements with the Abhidharma interpretation of the visualization of the impure in the 'Ocean Samādhi Contemplation Scripture' (T no. 643) and the 'Meditation Sūtra of Dharmatrāta' (T no. 618), showing an increasing interest in Buddha visualizations, see Dhammajoti (2021, pp. 23-30). Also notice that, in the 'Meditation Sūtra of Dharmatrāta' (Damoduoluo chanjıng 達摩多羅禪經, T no. 618), the visualization of the impure culminates in visions of a pure land, which can be associated with the Mahāyāna (Mohr 2006(Mohr , 2020. Kumārajīva's 'Meditation Scripture' (T no. 614) describes all practices, including the visualization of impurity, within the paths for becoming an Arhat, a Pratyekabuddha, or a Buddha; despite the differences in the final goals, the Bodhisattva methods are very similar to those of the non-Bodhisattva practitioners (Yamabe and Sueki 2009, pp. XIV-XVIII). For the absence of a clearly marked dichotomy between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna methods in the early meditation manuals, see Greene (2021b, pp. 25-28). 15 Taixu distinguishes between meditation in China before the development of Chan and the features of meditation as practiced by Chan Buddhism. The former includes 'breath meditation' (anbanchan 安般禪), the 'five gates of meditation' (wu menchan, or wu tingchan), 'meditation of being mindful of the Buddha' (nianfochan 念佛禪) and 'meditation on the real characteristics of things' (shixiangchan 實相禪). This essay was recorded by Taixu's disciples and published as part of the collection Zhongguo foxue 中國佛學 (Taixu, 1943). According to Yinshun, Taixu first realized the importance of meditation as the very feature of Chinese Buddhism in 1926 (Yinshun, 1973, p. 217a). 16 More precisely, the recollection of the body is related to impurity (guan shen bujing 觀身不淨), that of the sensation to suffering (guan shou shiku 觀受是苦), that of the mind to impermanence (guan xin wuchang 觀心無常), and that of mental formations or dharmas to the no-self (guan fa wuwo 觀法無我).

35
The first quotation, from the Dazhidu lun, is not verbatim. This is followed by a quotation on the filthy aspects of the body (T no. 1509: 60a21, almost verbatim) and on the five types of impurity (T no. 1509: 198c, 22-24). 36 T no. 1545: 840a26-b10 (*Mahāvibhās .ā , see note 41 below). At this point Tanxuan also quotes the 'Sūtra of Mañjuśrī's Questions' (Wenshu wen jing 文殊問經, T no. 468), which explains that the visualization of impurity is aimed at getting rid of desire. However, I was not able to trace the exact quotation. 37 On these two forms of the visualization of impurity, i.e., the contemplation of the impurities of a living human body and the meditation on the decay of a corpse-a standard Sarvāstivāda systematization-see Dhammajoti (2009) and Greene (2006, pp. 66-92). 38 Quotations include the 'Ocean Samādhi Contemplation Scripture' (T no. 643: 652b), which is paraphrased instead of being quoted at length (on this text, which is currently regarded as apocryphal, see Yamabe 1999) and the Jñānaprasthāna (by quoting its commentary *Mahāvibhās .ā , T no. 1545: 206c27-207a26), where the Buddha declares that he will devote himself to the visualization of impurity. 39 Quotation on the Buddha teaching the practice, the monks being scared, fetching a corpse, being scolded by the laypeople, and lastly, the Buddha explaining that they should not touch a corpse (T no. 1421: 134b15-18, b21-24, and b28-c04). 40 On this early Chinese Commentary on the Ekōttarāgama, which shows an affinity with Prajñāpāramitā thought, see Palumbo (2013). 41 The 'Treatise of the Great Commentary on the Abhidharma' (Sk. *Abhidharmamahāvibhās .āśā stra, T no. 1545.27: 1a-1004a) is a commentary on the Jñānaprasthāna (T no. 1544), a canonical work of the Sarvāstivāda school. On the aśubhabhāvanā in the Mahāvibhās .ā , see Dhammajoti (2009). 42 The text quoted is the Jingxin jie guan fa 淨心戒觀法 (T no. 1893). 43 A reference to the Daweide tuoluoni jing 大威德陀羅尼經 (T no. 1341), quoted from the Fayuanzhulin 法苑珠林 (T no. 2122: 446b26-446c05). 44 The content seems to be an abridged version of the Zhi chanbing miyaofa 治禪病祕要法 (T no. 620: 335c09f). It may also be a quotation taken from another non-canonical meditation manual. On this genre and on the various 'Chan essentials,' see Greene (2021b, pp. 80-81). 45 Tanxuan apparently quotes the text from the Fayuanzhulin (T no. 2122: 630c04-11). 46 In this case the text is very likely taken from the Zhi chanbing miyaofa (T no. 620), even if minor variations may point to a different version than that from the Taishō text. 47 This is a possible reference to a tantric version of the practice, whereby the syllable ra is connected with the fire element. 48 Quotations inspired by the Bu ke le are presented in full, Shengyan's verses in quotation marks. Due to the need to match their contents, both sequences are slightly modified in Taoxuan's combination. 49 The text, titled Yuhai hui kuang 欲海回狂, is the third chapter of the 'Anshi collection' (Anshi quanshu 安士全書), which became well known at the beginning of the twentieth century as it was promoted as the number one 'moral book' (shanshu 善書) by Yinguang. See Kiely (2016, p. 34). 50 The text broadly corresponds to the Chan miyao fa jing 禪祕要法經 (T no. 613: 254c03-11), a prominent example of the fifthcentury meditation manuals attributed to Kumārajīva. Also in this case, as with above, it may be that the quotation is taken from a non-canonical version of the meditation manual. On T no. 613, see Greene (2018), and for the rebirth in Maitreya's heaven, see Greene (2021b, pp. 12-13). 51 Small differences between Tanxuan's text and the Taishō edition in italics. 52 The verses are quoted verbatim from the 'Sūtra of the Collection of the Past Activities of the Buddha' (Fo benxingji jing 佛本行集 經, Sk. Buddhacaritasam . grāha, T no. 190: 729a08-11). Tanxuan, however, references the Mahāvibhās .ā . Translated by Jñānagupta, the Buddhacaritasam . grāha is the most complete version of the Buddha's life in the Chinese canon. Tanxuan includes this text in the final list of references. 53 See Tanxuan (1936, pp. 43-44). For an overview of sources on the meditation on impurity-ranging from Pāli texts, Chinesē Agamas, Northern Abhidharma tradition and Yogācāra tradition, to the meditation manuals-see Dhammajoti (2009Dhammajoti ( , 2021. 54 The list includes the 'Secret Methods for Curing Meditation Sickness' (Zhi chanbing miyaofa 治禪病祕要法, T no. 620), one of the apocryphal meditation manuals of the fifth century, describing a series of healing meditations. See Greene (2021b, p. 75f). 55 The Shanjianlü piposha (tr. attributed to Sam . ghabhadra, 488) is a vinaya commentary which was considered a translation of the Samantapāsādikā (a commentary attributed to Buddhaghos . a) throughout the twentieth century. This attribution has been questioned by scholars. See Heirman (2004) and, for the origin of this attribution by Takakusu Junjirō , Jaffe (2019, p. 218). It is referenced by Tanxuan as a translation from the Pāli (T no. 1462: 744b11-14 and b28-c01). 56 The Jñānaprasthāna (T no. 1544) and its commentary *Mahāvibhās .ā (T no. 1545). See note 41. For the visualization of impurity in the Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, see Dhammajoti (2009, pp. 248-63). 57