Optimization of Aqueous Extraction Conditions for Recovery of Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties from Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) Skin Waste
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Experimental Section
2.1. Materials
2.2. Chemicals
2.3. Extraction Process
2.4. Response Surface Methodology (RSM)
Run | Experimental Conditions | Experimental Results | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
X1 | X2 | X3 | TPC | Flavon-Oids | Proantho-Cyanidins | ABTS | DPPH | CUPRAC | FRAP | |
1 | 75 | 10 | 2 | 47.19 | 25.90 | 37.21 | 237.50 | 151.70 | 465.46 | 330.73 |
2 | 60 | 20 | 2 | 114.27 | 12.54 | 113.17 | 410.70 | 269.62 | 407.81 | 174.42 |
3 | 90 | 20 | 2 | 175.27 | 27.68 | 173.97 | 318.80 | 215.66 | 606.74 | 471.53 |
4 | 75 | 30 | 2 | 61.14 | 11.86 | 53.91 | 320.82 | 217.22 | 263.83 | 249.65 |
5 | 60 | 10 | 5 | 74.64 | 13.54 | 62.22 | 143.57 | 104.43 | 116.91 | 417.68 |
6 | 90 | 10 | 5 | 90.92 | 27.77 | 93.85 | 155.14 | 96.23 | 167.16 | 298.43 |
7 | 75 | 20 | 5 | 53.57 | 16.29 | 51.27 | 122.08 | 61.20 | 265.45 | 189.69 |
8 | 75 | 20 | 5 | 53.82 | 17.73 | 54.80 | 84.37 | 47.93 | 217.87 | 296.44 |
9 | 75 | 20 | 5 | 37.73 | 17.16 | 34.01 | 108.56 | 66.30 | 182.82 | 222.23 |
10 | 60 | 30 | 5 | 40.94 | 20.45 | 34.73 | 248.49 | 188.23 | 438.67 | 295.28 |
11 | 90 | 30 | 5 | 39.21 | 25.37 | 38.16 | 197.63 | 134.50 | 247.66 | 370.50 |
12 | 75 | 10 | 8 | 48.08 | 15.50 | 40.35 | 220.56 | 124.54 | 193.37 | 191.98 |
13 | 60 | 20 | 8 | 32.59 | 12.27 | 34.02 | 167.26 | 103.16 | 103.34 | 162.78 |
14 | 90 | 20 | 8 | 74.99 | 22.37 | 71.96 | 226.84 | 177.25 | 282.00 | 316.90 |
15 | 75 | 30 | 8 | 31.32 | 20.13 | 32.67 | 259.22 | 160.77 | 456.88 | 304.03 |
2.5. Methods for Determination of Chemical Properties
2.5.1. Total Phenolic Content (TPC)
2.5.2. Total Flavonoids
2.5.3. Proanthocyanidins
2.6. Methods for Determination of Antioxidant Properties
2.6.1. ABTS Radical Scavenging Capacity
2.6.2. DPPH Radical Scavenging Activity
2.6.3. Cupric Reducing Antioxidant Capacity (CUPRAC)
2.6.4. Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP)
2.7. Statistical Analyses
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Statistical Analysis and the Model Fitting
TPC | Flavon-Oids | Proantho-Cyanidins | Antioxidant Capacity | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
ABTS | DPPH | CUPRAC | FRAP | ||||
Lack of fit | 0.21 | 0.04 | 0.36 | 0.12 | 0.09 | 0.15 | 0.14 |
R² | 0.87 | 0.93 | 0.88 | 0.92 | 0.95 | 0.85 | 0.85 |
Adjusted R² | 0.64 | 0.80 | 0.66 | 0.77 | 0.86 | 0.57 | 0.59 |
PRESS | 16310 | 487 | 12077 | 131264 | 41294 | 469190 | 144892 |
F ratio of Model | 3.81 | 7.36 | 4.13 | 6.48 | 11.11 | 3.08 | 3.25 |
P of model > F | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.06 | 0.03 | 0.01 | 0.11 | 0.10 |
3.2. Effect of Extraction Independent Variables on TPC, Flavonoids, and Proanthocyanidins
Parameter | DF | TPC | Flavonoids | Proanthocyanidins | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | Prob > |t| | Estimate | Prob > |t| | Estimate | Prob > |t| | ||
β0 | 1 | 48.37 | 0.0445 * | 17.06 | 0.001 * | 46.69 | 0.05 |
β1 | 1 | 14.74 | 0.2419 | 3.78 | 0.07 | 16.72 | 0.20 |
β2 | 1 | −11.02 | 0.3665 | −0.57 | 0.74 | −9.2 | 0.45 |
β3 | 1 | −26.36 | 0.0637 | −1.71 | 0.35 | −24.90 | 0.07 |
β12 | 1 | −4.50 | 0.7859 | −1.19 | 0.64 | −7.04 | 0.67 |
β13 | 1 | −4.649 | 0.7792 | −1.73 | 0.50 | −5.71 | 0.735 |
β23 | 1 | −7.67 | 0.6457 | 3.87 | 0.16 | −6.09 | 0.71 |
β11 | 1 | 32.69 | 0.102 | 3.18 | 0.26 | 33.89 | 0.09 |
β22 | 1 | −19.64 | 0.2834 | 2.11 | 0.43 | −23.34 | 0.22 |
β33 | 1 | 18.20 | 0.3162 | −0.72 | 0.78 | 17.69 | 0.33 |
3.3. Effect of Extraction-Independent Variables on Flavonoids of Macadamia tetraphylla Skin Extracts
3.4. Effect of Extraction-Independent Variables on the Antioxidant Capacity of Macadamia tetraphylla Skin
Parameter | DF | ABTS | DPPH | CUPRAC | FRAP | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Estimate | Prob > | t| | Estimate | Prob > | t| | Estimate | Prob > | t| | Estimate | Prob > | t| | ||
β0 | 1 | 105.0044 | 0.0079 * | 58.47778 | 0.0085 * | 222.0527 | 0.0347 * | 236.1242 | 0.0055 * |
β1 | 1 | −8.95139 | 0.578 | −5.22604 | 0.5669 | 29.6031 | 0.5585 | 50.89991 | 0.161 |
β2 | 1 | 33.67389 | 0.0755 | 27.97708 | 0.022* | 58.01841 | 0.2742 | −2.42235 | 0.9406 |
β3 | 1 | −51.7403 | 0.0185 * | −36.0608 | 0.0083 * | −88.532 | 0.1199 | −31.3291 | 0.3578 |
β12 | 1 | −15.6089 | 0.4963 | −11.3833 | 0.3887 | −60.3147 | 0.4082 | 48.61667 | 0.3172 |
β13 | 1 | 37.86944 | 0.1354 | 32.01042 | 0.0453 | −5.06977 | 0.9425 | −35.7491 | 0.4512 |
β23 | 1 | −11.1667 | 0.6223 | −7.31944 | 0.5706 | 116.2849 | 0.1424 | 48.2822 | 0.3202 |
β11 | 1 | 51.29194 | 0.0685 | 50.1184 | 0.0104 * | 12.8188 | 0.861 | 60.82964 | 0.2393 |
β22 | 1 | 29.91694 | 0.2348 | 22.25382 | 0.1366 | 7.731589 | 0.9158 | 48.52188 | 0.3355 |
β33 | 1 | 124.6064 | 0.0025 * | 82.8309 | 0.0012 * | 115.1052 | 0.1589 | −15.5438 | 0.7468 |
3.5. Optimization and Validation of the Models
Values | ||
---|---|---|
Predicted | Experimental (n = 3) | |
TPC (mg GAE/g) | 95.82 ± 50.82 a | 86.01 ± 3.45 a |
Flavonoids (mg RE/g) | 24.03 ± 7.80 a | 30.97 ± 3.72 a |
Proanthocyanidins (mg GAE/g) | 97.31 ± 51.85 a | 97.62 ± 5.08 a |
ABTS (μM TE/g) | 147.34 ± 68.85 a | 212.80 ± 14.6133 a |
DPPH (μM TE/g) | 103.37 ± 39.02 a | 130.9111 ± 19.05 a |
CUPRAC (μM TE/g) | 264.47 ± 216.18 a | 476.77 ± 26.46 a |
FRAP (μM TE/g) | 347.85 ± 141.56 a | 558.60 ± 54.35 a |
4. Conclusions
Acknowledgments
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Dailey, A.; Vuong, Q.V. Optimization of Aqueous Extraction Conditions for Recovery of Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties from Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) Skin Waste. Antioxidants 2015, 4, 699-718. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox4040699
Dailey A, Vuong QV. Optimization of Aqueous Extraction Conditions for Recovery of Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties from Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) Skin Waste. Antioxidants. 2015; 4(4):699-718. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox4040699
Chicago/Turabian StyleDailey, Adriana, and Quan V. Vuong. 2015. "Optimization of Aqueous Extraction Conditions for Recovery of Phenolic Content and Antioxidant Properties from Macadamia (Macadamia tetraphylla) Skin Waste" Antioxidants 4, no. 4: 699-718. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox4040699