Immune-Enhancing Effects of Red Platycodon grandiflorus Root Extract via p38 MAPK-Mediated NF-B Activation

Platycodongrandiflorus (PG) root extract has been widely used as an oriental herbal medicine. Red PG root extract (RPGE), which is made by steaming and drying PG several times, contains more saponin than raw (white) PG. Although RPGE has been known to have anti-inflammatory activity, the effects of RPGE on the immune-enhancing response remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to investigate the immune-enhancing effects of RPGE and its mechanism in macrophage cells and splenocytes. Our results revealed that cell proliferation of both macrophages and splenocytes correlate positively with the concentration of RPGE. Moreover, RPGE treatment increased the phagocytic activity of macrophage cells, as well as nitric oxide and cytokines production. Furthermore, RPGE induced phosphorylation of the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase, which contributed to nuclear factor-kappa B activation. Thus, our findings suggest that RPGE may be a potential functional food for improving immune function.

Nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB)-mediated cellular changes are known to be closely associated with both the innate and adaptive immune responses [4,5]. In innate immune cells, such as macrophages, NF-κB activation is initiated by the degradation of inhibitory kappa B alpha (IκB) proteins, following which the free NF-κB enters the nucleus to perform various downstream functions, including immune regulation and proliferation [4,6]. Generally, immunostimulants activate the immune cell function through specific binding with receptors [7]. Moreover, immunostimulants trigger several downstream signals, such as the NF-κB pathway, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) pathway, increasing the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), as well as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 [1,7]. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5457 4 of 12

Quantification of Cytokine Levels
RAW 264.7 cells or mouse splenocytes were seeded in 6-well plates at 4.0 × 10 5 cells/well. The cells were treated with various concentrations of RPGE-C or RPEG-P for 24 h. To determine the cytokine levels, media was collected, and IL-6 and IL-10 levels were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays kits (ELISA; R&D Systems Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA), according to the manufacturer's instructions.

Statistical Analysis
All data are expressed as mean ± SEM. Multiple comparisons of means among experimental groups were carried out with one-way ANOVA, followed by a post-hoc test using the GraphPad Prism 5 software (Graph Pad Software Inc., San Diego, CA USA). A p-value of <0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RPGE Increases Phagocytic Activity in RAW 264.7 Cells
To assess whether the RPGE affects cell viability, we performed the CCK-8 assay. Both RPGE-C and RPGE-P were shown to have any cytotoxic effect on RAW 264.7 cells. Interestingly, the viable cell population was increased by RPGEs in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 1a,b). To ascertain whether RPGE-induced cell proliferation in RAW 264.7 cells is related to macrophage activation, we first analyzed the phagocytic ability of RPGE treated cells. The phagocytic activity was monitored by measuring the amount of internalized E. coli in macrophages. RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with PI or RPGEs (20, 100, or 500 µg/mL) for 24 h before addition of the E. coli suspension. After treatment with RPGE-C or RPGE-P at concentrations above 100 µg/mL, the phagocytic activity of cells was found to be significantly increased than in cells treated with the vehicle control (VC) (Figure 2a pretreated with PI or RPGEs (20, 100, or 500 μg/mL) for 24 h before addition of the E. coli suspension. After treatment with RPGE-C or RPGE-P at concentrations above 100 μg/mL, the phagocytic activity of cells was found to be significantly increased than in cells treated with the vehicle control (VC) (Figure 2a,b). . The results are expressed as relative values to that of the vehicle-treated cells (vehicle control, VC), which is set to 100%. The data are represented as the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 when compared with the VC.

RPGE Enhances NO Production in RAW 264.7 Cells
The immune-enhancing effects of RPGEs were confirmed by measuring the nitrite level in cell culture medium using the Griess Reagent System. As shown in Figure 3, we observed a slight but significant enhancement in NO production after treatment with the highest concentration (500 μg/mL) of RPGE-C (Figure 3a) or RPGE-P (Figure 3d). Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS, gene name Nos2) is a NO synthesis enzyme, and cyclooxygenase (COX-2, gene name Ptgs2) is the enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandin E2 [16]. The Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels in RAW 264.7 cells were measured after RPGEs treatment. As shown in Figure 3b,c,e,f, treatment with RPGEs for 24 h markedly increased Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels compared to the vehicle control. of cells was found to be significantly increased than in cells treated with the vehicle control (VC) (Figure 2a

RPGE Enhances NO Production in RAW 264.7 Cells
The immune-enhancing effects of RPGEs were confirmed by measuring the nitrite level in cell culture medium using the Griess Reagent System. As shown in Figure 3, we observed a slight but significant enhancement in NO production after treatment with the highest concentration (500 μg/mL) of RPGE-C (Figure 3a) or RPGE-P (Figure 3d). Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS, gene name Nos2) is a NO synthesis enzyme, and cyclooxygenase (COX-2, gene name Ptgs2) is the enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandin E2 [16]. The Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels in RAW 264.7 cells were measured after RPGEs treatment. As shown in Figure 3b,c,e,f, treatment with RPGEs for 24 h markedly increased Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels compared to the vehicle control.

RPGE Enhances NO Production in RAW 264.7 Cells
The immune-enhancing effects of RPGEs were confirmed by measuring the nitrite level in cell culture medium using the Griess Reagent System. As shown in Figure 3, we observed a slight but significant enhancement in NO production after treatment with the highest concentration (500 µg/mL) of RPGE-C ( Figure 3a) or RPGE-P ( Figure 3d). Inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS, gene name Nos2) is a NO synthesis enzyme, and cyclooxygenase (COX-2, gene name Ptgs2) is the enzyme that converts arachidonic acid to prostaglandin E2 [16]. The Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels in RAW 264.7 cells were measured after RPGEs treatment. As shown in Figure 3b,c,e,f, treatment with RPGEs for 24 h markedly increased Nos2 and Ptgs2 mRNA expression levels compared to the vehicle control. Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 (c,f) Ptgs2 mRNA expression level. NO, Nitric oxide. All gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. The data are represented as the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 when compared with the VC.

RPGE Increases Cytokine Levels in RAW 264.7 Cells
To assess the modulation of cytokines related to innate immunity due to RPGE-induced macrophage activation, we measured TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA expression levels by real-time RT-PCR and IL-6 protein levels by ELISA. Compared to the VC, RPGE-C treatment increased the mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, as well as IL-6 production, in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 4a-d). Compared to the RPGE-C treatment, the effects of RPGE-P on the mRNA expression levels of cytokines and production level of IL-6 were less pronounced but statistically significant compared with the VC at the highest concentration (500 μg/mL, Figure 4e-h). These data indicated that both RPGE-C and RPGE-P play a role in cytokine regulation. The gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. (d,h) IL-6 protein levels in the culture supernatant. All data are represented as the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 when compared with the VC. (c,f) Ptgs2 mRNA expression level. NO, Nitric oxide. All gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. The data are represented as the mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001 when compared with the VC.

RPGE Increases Cytokine Levels in RAW 264.7 Cells
To assess the modulation of cytokines related to innate immunity due to RPGE-induced macrophage activation, we measured TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA expression levels by real-time RT-PCR and IL-6 protein levels by ELISA. Compared to the VC, RPGE-C treatment increased the mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, as well as IL-6 production, in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 4a-d). Compared to the RPGE-C treatment, the effects of RPGE-P on the mRNA expression levels of cytokines and production level of IL-6 were less pronounced but statistically significant compared with the VC at the highest concentration (500 µg/mL, Figure 4e-h). These data indicated that both RPGE-C and RPGE-P play a role in cytokine regulation.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 (c,f) Ptgs2 mRNA expression level. NO, Nitric oxide. All gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. The data are represented as the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 when compared with the VC.

RPGE Increases Cytokine Levels in RAW 264.7 Cells
To assess the modulation of cytokines related to innate immunity due to RPGE-induced macrophage activation, we measured TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 mRNA expression levels by real-time RT-PCR and IL-6 protein levels by ELISA. Compared to the VC, RPGE-C treatment increased the mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6, as well as IL-6 production, in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 4a-d). Compared to the RPGE-C treatment, the effects of RPGE-P on the mRNA expression levels of cytokines and production level of IL-6 were less pronounced but statistically significant compared with the VC at the highest concentration (500 μg/mL, Figure 4e-h). These data indicated that both RPGE-C and RPGE-P play a role in cytokine regulation. The gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. (d,h) IL-6 protein levels in the culture supernatant. All data are represented as the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05, **p < 0.01, and ***p < 0.001 when compared with the VC. The gene expression values were normalized to Actb, and the results were expressed as relative values to that of the VC, which is set to 1. (d,h) IL-6 protein levels in the culture supernatant. All data are represented as the mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, and *** p < 0.001 when compared with the VC.

RPGE Activates NF-κB and MAPK Signaling in RAW 264.7 Cells
To identify the effect of RPGE on NF-κB signaling, we performed a transcriptional activity assay using reporter gene constructs of 3xNF-κB-binding elements in RAW 264.7 cells. Treatment with RPGE-C at concentrations of 100 and 500 µg/mL (Figure 5a) or RPGE-P at a concentration 500 µg/mL (Figure 5c) led to the induction of luciferase activity, indicating that RPGE activates NF-κB signaling. To understand the molecular mechanisms of the effect of RPGE on NF-κB signaling, we examined the phosphorylation status of NF-κB and IκB by Western blot. Our results showed that RPGE-C increased the levels of phospho-NF-κB and phospho-IκBα in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5b). In the case of RPGE-P, phosphorylation levels of NF-κB and IκBα were also increased at the highest concentration (500 µg/mL, Figure 5d). Moreover, the presence of an NF-κB inhibitor (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, PDTC) with RPGE inhibited NO production, cytokine levels, and phosphorylation of NF-κB ( Figure S1). Therefore, our results indicated that RPGE can induce macrophage activation via NF-κB signaling.
To identify the effect of RPGE on NF-κB signaling, we performed a transcriptional activity assay using reporter gene constructs of 3xNF-κB-binding elements in RAW 264.7 cells. Treatment with RPGE-C at concentrations of 100 and 500 μg/mL (Figure 5a) or RPGE-P at a concentration 500 μg/mL (Figure 5c) led to the induction of luciferase activity, indicating that RPGE activates NF-κB signaling. To understand the molecular mechanisms of the effect of RPGE on NF-κB signaling, we examined the phosphorylation status of NF-κB and IκB by Western blot. Our results showed that RPGE-C increased the levels of phospho-NF-κB and phospho-IκBα in a dose-dependent manner (Figure 5b). In the case of RPGE-P, phosphorylation levels of NF-κB and IκBα were also increased at the highest concentration (500 μg/mL, Figure 5d). Moreover, the presence of an NF-κB inhibitor (pyrrolidine dithiocarbamate, PDTC) with RPGE inhibited NO production, cytokine levels, and phosphorylation of NF-κB ( Figure S1). Therefore, our results indicated that RPGE can induce macrophage activation via NF-κB signaling.
Since NF-κB activation is mediated via MAPK (p38 MAPK and JNK) signaling [17], we assessed whether RPGE induces MAPK activation in RAW 264.7 cells. Figure 6a,b (left) showed that the activation of p38 MAPK and JNK signaling were observed following treatment with 500 μg/mL of RPGE-C or RPGE-P. Maximum levels of p38 MAPK and JNK phosphorylation appeared at 30 min post-treatment and decreased thereafter. Not only RPGE-C but also RPGE-P treatment was shown to increase the phosphorylation level of MAPK in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 6a,b, right) Figure 5. Effect of RPGE on NF-κB activation in RAW 264.7 cells. (a) RPGE-C; (c) RPGE-P. Luciferase activity was expressed as a relative value to that of the VC, which is set to 100%. The figures show the mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 and ***p < 0.001. (b) The cells were treated with 500 μg/mL of RPGE-C for the indicated times or indicated concentrations for 60 min prior to Western blot analysis; (d) The cells were treated with 500 μg/mL of RPGE-P for the indicated times or indicated concentrations prior to Western blot analysis. (c) RPGE-P. Luciferase activity was expressed as a relative value to that of the VC, which is set to 100%. The figures show the mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05 and *** p < 0.001. (b) The cells were treated with 500 µg/mL of RPGE-C for the indicated times or indicated concentrations for 60 min prior to Western blot analysis; (d) The cells were treated with 500 µg/mL of RPGE-P for the indicated times or indicated concentrations prior to Western blot analysis.
Since NF-κB activation is mediated via MAPK (p38 MAPK and JNK) signaling [17], we assessed whether RPGE induces MAPK activation in RAW 264.7 cells. Figure 6a,b (left) showed that the activation of p38 MAPK and JNK signaling were observed following treatment with 500 µg/mL of RPGE-C or RPGE-P. Maximum levels of p38 MAPK and JNK phosphorylation appeared at 30 min post-treatment and decreased thereafter. Not only RPGE-C but also RPGE-P treatment was shown to increase the phosphorylation level of MAPK in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 6a,b, right). Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 12

RPGE-Induced NF-κB Activation Is Associated with p38 MAPK in RAW 264.7 Cells
To identify the association between the MAPK and NF-κB signaling by RPGE, we performed a luciferase assay using SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor) and SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor). Firstly, we confirmed that these inhibitors did not influence luciferase activity (Figure 7a). Treatment with 10 μM SB203580 (Figure 7b) markedly reduced RPGE-C or RPGE-P induced NF-κB signaling. However, cotreatment with 10 μM SP600125 (Figure 7c) had no effect on NF-κB signaling. These results suggested that the p38 MAPK is associated with RPGE-induced NF-κB activation.

RPGE Induces Cell Proliferation and Increases IL-10 Expression Levels in Mouse Splenocytes
To assess the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE in splenocytes, we isolated whole spleen cells from mice. The cell viability of splenocytes treated with reference mitogens (T-lymphocyte mitogen, Con A or B-lymphocyte mitogen, LPS) was increased by approximately 230% and 300% of the VC (100%), respectively. Viable cell populations were gradually increased by treatment with RPGE-C in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 8a) and by treatment with the highest concentration (500 μg/mL) of RPGE-P (Figure 8c). To determine whether RPGE could affect IL-10 production, we investigated the secretion of IL-10 in isolated mouse splenocytes. Both RPGE-C and RPGE-P

RPGE-Induced NF-κB Activation Is Associated with p38 MAPK in RAW 264.7 Cells
To identify the association between the MAPK and NF-κB signaling by RPGE, we performed a luciferase assay using SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor) and SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor). Firstly, we confirmed that these inhibitors did not influence luciferase activity (Figure 7a). Treatment with 10 µM SB203580 (Figure 7b) markedly reduced RPGE-C or RPGE-P induced NF-κB signaling. however, cotreatment with 10 µM SP600125 (Figure 7c) had no effect on NF-κB signaling. These results suggested that the p38 MAPK is associated with RPGE-induced NF-κB activation.

RPGE-Induced NF-κB Activation Is Associated with p38 MAPK in RAW 264.7 Cells
To identify the association between the MAPK and NF-κB signaling by RPGE, we performed a luciferase assay using SB203580 (a p38 MAPK inhibitor) and SP600125 (a JNK inhibitor). Firstly, we confirmed that these inhibitors did not influence luciferase activity (Figure 7a). Treatment with 10 μM SB203580 (Figure 7b) markedly reduced RPGE-C or RPGE-P induced NF-κB signaling. However, cotreatment with 10 μM SP600125 (Figure 7c) had no effect on NF-κB signaling. These results suggested that the p38 MAPK is associated with RPGE-induced NF-κB activation.

RPGE Induces Cell Proliferation and Increases IL-10 Expression Levels in Mouse Splenocytes
To assess the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE in splenocytes, we isolated whole spleen cells from mice. The cell viability of splenocytes treated with reference mitogens (T-lymphocyte mitogen, Con A or B-lymphocyte mitogen, LPS) was increased by approximately 230% and 300% of the VC (100%), respectively. Viable cell populations were gradually increased by treatment with RPGE-C in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 8a) and by treatment with the highest concentration (500 μg/mL) of RPGE-P (Figure 8c). To determine whether RPGE could affect IL-10 production, we investigated the secretion of IL-10 in isolated mouse splenocytes. Both RPGE-C and RPGE-P

RPGE Induces Cell Proliferation and Increases IL-10 Expression Levels in Mouse Splenocytes
To assess the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE in splenocytes, we isolated whole spleen cells from mice. The cell viability of splenocytes treated with reference mitogens (T-lymphocyte mitogen, Con A or B-lymphocyte mitogen, LPS) was increased by approximately 230% and 300% of the VC (100%), respectively. Viable cell populations were gradually increased by treatment with RPGE-C in a concentration-dependent manner (Figure 8a) and by treatment with the highest concentration (500 µg/mL) of RPGE-P (Figure 8c). To determine whether RPGE could affect IL-10 production, we investigated the secretion of IL-10 in isolated mouse splenocytes. Both RPGE-C and RPGE-P Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, 5457 9 of 12 treatment induced the secretion of IL-10 ( Figure 8b,d), which suggested that RPGE could enhance immunity via modulation of immune lymphocytes, such as B cells.
Appl. Sci. 2020, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12 treatment induced the secretion of IL-10 ( Figure 8b,d), which suggested that RPGE could enhance immunity via modulation of immune lymphocytes, such as B cells.

Discussion
The host immune system plays a crucial role in defending or inhibiting several pathological conditions, such as infections and tumors [18,19]. However, the most important aspect of the immunity is the balance between activation and inhibition. There are some plant extracts or their components that have been reported to have an immunostimulant effects under normal conditions, whereas they have an immunosuppressing effect in inflammatory environments, such as LPS treatment [7,[20][21][22].
In the present study, we have revealed the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE. RPGE-C or RPGE-P treatment significantly increased phagocytic activity in macrophages, as well as NO production and mRNA expression levels of innate immune-related cytokines. Moreover, our previous studies have also confirmed the mitigating effects of RPGE on the LPS-induced inflammatory response in splenocytes isolated from mice [8]. Therefore, we concluded that RPGE has immunomodulatory properties in immune cells.
NF-κB and MAPK signaling play a crucial role in immune responses [1,4,23,24]. However, the relationship between the two signaling pathways remains unclear. Here, our results show that RPGE stimulates the immune responses in RAW 264.7 cells via two different mechanisms. RPGE has shown to increase phosphorylation levels of NF-κB, as well as increase p38 MAPK-induced NF-κB activation. The inhibition of NF-κB and p38 reduced RPGE-induced macrophage activation ( Figure  S1). Therefore, our results suggest that RPGE is a promising functional food for enhancing immunity. Moreover, further studies on the immunomodulatory effect of RPGE may further understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the immune response.
The functional food industry has used various processing methods to increase the active ingredients of raw materials [25][26][27]. Approximately 30 different active ingredients of PG are known [28], including platycodin D, the representative saponin in PG ( Figure S2A). In this study, we steamed (c) Mouse splenocytes were incubated with Con A (5 µg/mL), LPS (1 µg/mL), or various concentrations of RPGE-P. Con A, Concanavalin A; LPS, lipopolysaccharide. The results were expressed as a relative value to that of VC, which is set to 100%. The data are represented as the mean ± SEM. ** p < 0.01 and *** p < 0.001 as when compared with the VC. (b) IL-10 protein level (RPGE-C); (d) IL-10 protein level (RPGE-P). All data are represented as the mean ± SEM. * p < 0.05 and *** p < 0.001 as when compared with the VC.

Discussion
The host immune system plays a crucial role in defending or inhibiting several pathological conditions, such as infections and tumors [18,19]. however, the most important aspect of the immunity is the balance between activation and inhibition. There are some plant extracts or their components that have been reported to have an immunostimulant effects under normal conditions, whereas they have an immunosuppressing effect in inflammatory environments, such as LPS treatment [7,[20][21][22].
In the present study, we have revealed the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE. RPGE-C or RPGE-P treatment significantly increased phagocytic activity in macrophages, as well as NO production and mRNA expression levels of innate immune-related cytokines. Moreover, our previous studies have also confirmed the mitigating effects of RPGE on the LPS-induced inflammatory response in splenocytes isolated from mice [8]. Therefore, we concluded that RPGE has immunomodulatory properties in immune cells.
NF-κB and MAPK signaling play a crucial role in immune responses [1,4,23,24]. however, the relationship between the two signaling pathways remains unclear. here, our results show that RPGE stimulates the immune responses in RAW 264.7 cells via two different mechanisms. RPGE has shown to increase phosphorylation levels of NF-κB, as well as increase p38 MAPK-induced NF-κB activation. The inhibition of NF-κB and p38 reduced RPGE-induced macrophage activation ( Figure S1). Therefore, our results suggest that RPGE is a promising functional food for enhancing immunity. Moreover, further studies on the immunomodulatory effect of RPGE may further understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying the immune response.
The functional food industry has used various processing methods to increase the active ingredients of raw materials [25][26][27]. Approximately 30 different active ingredients of PG are known [28], including platycodin D, the representative saponin in PG ( Figure S2A). In this study, we steamed and dried raw PG several times, thereby increasing the content of platycodin D by approximately three times when compared to white PG ( Figure S2B). This process is similar to the increase in the saponin content of red ginseng compared to white ginseng [5,26,27]. Moreover, this increase in the content of active ingredients may further improve the functionality of PG.
To determine the cellular mechanism of the immune-enhancing effect of RPGE, we used the murine macrophage cell line, RAW 264.7. The viable cell population was increased by RPGE treatment (Figure 1a,b). The mean proliferation rates after treatment with the highest concentration of RPGE-C and RPGE-P (500 µg/mL) were increased by approximately 60% and 50% compared to the VC, respectively. Thus, our results demonstrate that RPGEs induce macrophage cell proliferation in RAW 264.7 cells. Interestingly, extracellular-signal-regulated kinase (ERK) activity was increased in cells treated with RPGE-C ( Figure S3A) or RPGE-P ( Figure S3B). ERK is a family of MAPK that plays a role in regulating cell growth signals [29,30]. When cells were cotreated with RPGEs and an ERK inhibitor (PD98059), NF-κB activity was increased ( Figure S3C). This is consistent with the results obtained in the previous study, which showed that ERK inhibition activates NF-κB [31]. These results suggest that RPGE-induced ERK activation in RAW 264.7 cells might regulate cell proliferation rather than immune activity.
When comparing RPGE-C and RPGE-P, both extracts showed dose-dependent-induced phagocytosis. however, for most of pharmaceutical activities, including cytokines and NF-κB, RPGE-C was more effective at lower concentrations than RPGE-P. These results are typical, as the RPGE-P was prepared by mixing with dextrin, and experiments with higher doses of RPGE-P are not possible due to the limited solubility. Moreover, these effects were not ascribed to processing but due to variations in their content, therefore it is suggested that more powder should be consumed than concentrate for the same effect. In conclusion, we showed the immunostimulatory effects of RPGE and its mechanisms, both in vitro and ex vivo. however, further studies are necessary to confirm the effects of RPGEs in animal models and humans.