Status of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) in Africa

: Life cycle assessment (LCA) has received attention as a tool to evaluate the environmental impacts of products and services. In the last 20 years, research on the topic has increased, and now more than 25,000 articles are related to LCA in scientiﬁc journals databases such as the Scopus database; however, the concept is relatively new in Africa, where the number of networks has been highlighted to be very low when compared to the other regions. This paper focuses on a review of life cycle assessments conducted in Africa over the last 20 years. It aims at highlighting the current research gap for African LCA. A total of 199 papers were found for the whole continent; this number is lower than that for both Japan and Germany (more than 400 articles each) and nearly equal to developing countries such as Thailand. Agriculture is the sector which received the most attention, representing 53 articles, followed by electricity and energy (60 articles for the two sectors). South Africa (43), Egypt (23), and Tunisia (19) were the countries where most of the research was conducted. Even if the number of articles related to LCA have increased in recent years, many steps still remain. For example, establishing a speciﬁc life cycle inventory (LCI) database for African countries or a targeted ideal life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) method. Several African key sectors could also be assessed further.


Introduction
According to United Nations (UN) projections, the African population, which is composed of more than 1.2 billion people at present, is expected to double by 2050 [1]. By this time, Nigeria, South Africa, and Egypt might also enter the list of the top 30 global economies by 2050 [2]. The high population and economic growth may have an impact on environmental problems in Africa. According to an Africa Environmental Outlook (AEO3) [3] report, several environmental problems already exist in Africa, including air pollution (more than one million people die every year in Africa due to air pollution [4]), water scarcity, and toxicity due to the heavy use of chemicals.
The economies of the 54 countries of Africa are mainly based on raw products [5,6] such as oil (Angola, Algeria, and Nigeria), metals (Egypt, Ghana, and South Africa), agrcultural products (cocoa beans in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana), oilseeds (Ethiopia and Togo), or coffee (Ethiopia and Uganda).
As highlighted by Bjorn et al. (2013) [7], little has been done concerning life cycle assessment (LCA) in Africa, where networks/research groups are notably limited. LCA is a useful technique to assess the environmental impacts of a product or service throughout its entire life cycle, i.e., from the extraction of raw material through to processing, transport, use, and finally recycling/disposal [8]. By considering several different impacts over the entire life cycle, it is possible to identify potential tradeoffs from transitioning one stage economy. Overall, North Africa has been the most active region, whereas many coun in Central Africa have not received any attention. South Africa is the leading countr the continent, with more than 40 LCA studies focused on the country. South Africa the longest history with LCA research, starting from the beginning of the 2000s. Fu recommendations concerning potential research topics in the future are provided in tion 4. 3.
The number of research articles published from 2010 increased when compared 2000-2010 (Figure 1), proving that LCA received more attention; however, it can b served that publications in recent years (2017-2020), have not followed a constant Therefore, the concept is still under development for the African continent, espec when considering that the number of LCA studies conducted by African research tutes/universities is still limited (The first author was based in Africa for 121 researc ticles). When looking at which types of product/services have been studied the most (Fi 2), two topics received the most attention, namely, agriculture (53 articles) and ergy/electricity (a total of 60 articles). This can be well understood, as many African c tries rely on the agricultural sector for revenue (both from domestic consumption overseas demand). For the electricity and energy sector, several problems exist in A due to solid fuel consumption in households, causing severe indoor air pollution [3] total electricity generation of Africa was around 800 TWh in 2020 [19] (which is n equal to the production of a developed country such as South Korea). When looking at which types of product/services have been studied the most (Figure 2), two topics received the most attention, namely, agriculture (53 articles) and energy/electricity (a total of 60 articles). This can be well understood, as many African countries rely on the agricultural sector for revenue (both from domestic consumption and overseas demand). For the electricity and energy sector, several problems exist in Africa due to solid fuel consumption in households, causing severe indoor air pollution [3]. The total electricity generation of Africa was around 800 TWh in 2020 [19] (which is nearly equal to the production of a developed country such as South Korea).
A description of each study is provided in Table 1. The main details of each research article are provided, such as the year of publication, country, product, functional unit, LCI database, and LCIA method used. In addition, Table A2 presents information such as the allocation, system boundaries, and institution of the first author for each study.
Concerning the life cycle inventory (LCI) database chosen, almost half of the research articles (100) used Ecoinvent as their LCI database, including 35 studies that used Ecoinvent v2 (mainly containing processes based on the situations in developed countries).
Concerning the Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method, CML was the most widely chosen (45) followed by ReCiPe (39), and EcoIndicator (24). It has to be noted that only nine studies chose ReCiPe2016 [10], one of the latest global LCIA methods, that contains characterization factors specific to African countries. A map of the research articles published per country is provided Figure 3. Additionally, a bar graph is presented in Figure 4, with the number of articles for the top eight most studied countries. It can be observed that these eight countries account for two thirds of the total number of African LCA publications. This highlights the fact that currently only 15% of Africa has been more or less covered whereas the environmental impacts of products or services in the 85% remaining countries remain mostly undetermined. It also shows the importance of the South African LCA community compared with most of the African countries.
When looking at the institution of the first author in each article, it was found that outside Africa, France (17), Spain (10), and the UK (10) were the three countries the most linked to the African LCA research. The information for each research article is presented in Table A2. A description of each study is provided in Table 1. The main details of each research article are provided, such as the year of publication, country, product, functional unit, LCI database, and LCIA method used. In addition, Table A2 presents information such as the allocation, system boundaries, and institution of the first author for each study.
Concerning the life cycle inventory (LCI) database chosen, almost half of the research articles (100) used Ecoinvent as their LCI database, including 35 studies that used Ecoinvent v2 (mainly containing processes based on the situations in developed countries).
Concerning the Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) method, CML was the most widely chosen (45) followed by ReCiPe (39), and EcoIndicator (24). It has to be noted that only nine studies chose ReCiPe2016 [10], one of the latest global LCIA methods, that contains characterization factors specific to African countries.
A map of the research articles published per country is provided Figure 3. Additionally, a bar graph is presented in Figure 4, with the number of articles for the top eight most studied countries. It can be observed that these eight countries account for two thirds of the total number of African LCA publications. This highlights the fact that currently only

A Focus on LCA for Agricultural Products
Several points can be highlighted regarding the research on agricultural products. For fisheries, Lourguioui et al. [26] found in Algeria that a reduction of 3150 MJ and 156 kg CO 2 eq per ton of fresh mussels could be reached if mussel farming activities would be operated in cooperation, instead of the traditional competitive scheme, as the resulting efficiency would be higher. The authors also highlighted the importance of applying LCA to the seafood production sector in Algeria. In Egypt [50], the importance of management practices was also highlighted to produce Nile Tilapia, carps, and mullets. By choosing better practices, life cycle impacts could be reduced by 22%. In Tunisia [184,191], it was shown that the production of seabass was an important source of nitrogen and phosphorus releases due to the fish feed. Cascade raceways featured higher impacts than traditional raceways. In sub-Saharan Africa, fish also constitute one of the main sources of animal protein. In Cameroon [37], the eutrophication impact was higher for Cameroon farms than for an intensive trout monoculture (France) or extensive carp polyculture (Brazil) due to poor water and poor manure management. In Senegal [132], F. Ziegler et al. found that artisanal fisheries have far lower inputs and emissions in the fishing phase compared with industrial fisheries. The global warming impacts from artisanal fisheries mainly come from the use of heavy fuel oil and low-quality refrigerants.
For the beef and dairy industries, D. Woldegebriela et al. [65] found out that milk production in Ethiopia had a higher global warming impact (1.75-2.22 kg CO 2 eq/kg milk) than other developing countries due to the large amounts of low-quality feeds fed.
For fruit and vegetable products, C. Basset-Mens et al. [107] showed that compared with mangoes from Brazil or peaches/apples from France, it could be observed that except for terrestrial acidification and marine eutrophication, the results were higher for all the other impact categories for clementine production in Morocco. There are several reasons that explain these results: the higher amount of fertilizer used (6 kgN/kg) and the high amount of water needed to grow clementines (8000 m 3 /hectare compared with 2.767 for apples grown in France), despite the fact that water is scarce in Morocco and it has to be withdrawn from more than 100 meter deep wells. The energy required to pump this water is also important (22,830 MJ per hectare compared with 2946 for mangoes grown in Brazil). Moreover, the Moroccan electricity mix is composed of more than 50% fossil energy (coal), which explains why the impact of climate change was also high. S. Peyen et al. [105] also showed that tomato cultivation had a higher impact in Morocco than in France (28 vs. 7.5 L H 2 Oeq/kg). They highlighted the importance of LCA for other impact categories (e.g., total energy consumption and global warming), which showed higher results in the case of France.
For forestry, in Ghana [73], it was found that the wastage of wood during timber processing contributed considerably to resource depletion, and land use impact was also a major concern, while kiln-dried lumber, plywood, and veneer production lines affected CO 2 emissions considerably. Relatively high energy consumption was also reported due to biomass combustion for drying wood products.
For other types of crops such as cocoa [69], it was revealed that even though fertilizer and pesticide usage was low, the water consumption was higher in Ghana's plantations than in other parts of the world such as Ecuador or Indonesia. For cassava, a major crop cultivated mainly in Western Africa, it was calculated that the higher energy consumption came from planting operations, where the global warming potential (GWP) per one hectare was about 80 kg CO 2 eq.

A Focus on LCA for Energy
The second topic that has received interest is life cycle assessment for energy and electricity systems.
Jatropha is often one of the preferred choices in Africa to replace conventional transport fuel. In Burkina Faso [33], it was found that its production could reduce both GHG emissions and energy consumption by around 80% when compared with diesel fuel. One of the main challenges is the land transformation that implies the quantity of energy output per hectare was limited (less than 10 GJ/ha). Therefore it could become a competitor of food crops. Another type of biodiesel is made using palm oil [35], where the results for Cameroon confirmed this tendency with a reduction of 70% compared with conventional fuel in the range of 60-80 g CO 2 /MJ. Proton-exchange membrane fuel cells have also received attention; however, the results found in Morocco [111] were much higher than those in Norway (4040 g CO 2 vs. 239 g/kWh) due to the electricity generation primarily based on fossil fuels for hydrogen production.
For cooking fuel, biogas is also an option to reduce the impacts of indoor air pollution. J. Lanche et al. [64] showed that 130,542 t CO 2 eq could be saved annually in Ethiopia if dung cakes were replaced with biogas. Indoor air pollution could also be avoided as dung combustion contributes to significant Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) and Particulate Matter (PM) emissions.
The use of renewables for electricity has been studied extensively. Several researchers have pointed out the need to develop photovoltaic (PV) systems and biomass power plants. R. Brizmohun et al. [103] pointed out the impacts of African fossil fuel power plant plants by analyzing the emissions of Mauritian plants. The global warming potential of electricity from coal was estimated to be 1444 kg CO 2 eq/MWh, which is about six times the minimum value obtained in the literature. The lack of abatement technology for PM2.5, SO 2 , and NOx was highlighted, as well as the higher sulphur content of the coal.
Wind power also received attention in Ethiopia [66]. Similar to studies conducted in developed countries, the CO 2 emissions per kWh output were low, around 35 g CO 2 /kWh. Electricity demand in the Middle East and North African (MENA) region has increased at a rate of 6-8% in recent years. To limit the impacts of this increase, a hybrid solar and biomass power plant was evaluated in Tunisia [199]; the GWP impact was found to be 22 kg CO 2 eq/MWh, with the boiler system and field having the greatest impact. Resource depletion and human toxicity were not negligible due to the solar field. Similar results were obtained in Morocco [113]. One of the solutions to promote renewables would be to retrofit existing dams to generate electricity from hydro power. This option was studied in Nigeria [125], finding corresponding values between 1.6 and 5.5 kg CO 2 eq/MWh. It was highlighted that there were advantages in terms of saving on economic investments as well in that case.
Finally, the extraction of raw materials such as coal, oil or natural gas has not received as much attention, as further highlighted by A. Irhoma et al. [82] in Libya. The study showed that crude oil production and distillation had significant impacts. The impact of respiratory inorganics was also highlighted. The authors pushed for a reduction in fossil resources at refineries but also raised concerns for flaring and venting issues.

The Need for an African LCI Database
As observed in several studies [26,74,87,179] and highlighted furthermore in Table 1, many of the LCA results obtained in the different studies were based on data from European-based LCI databases, namely, Ecoinvent or Gabi. Even though there has been progress in globalizing inventory processes from Ecoinvent v2 to Ecoinvent v3 [217], most of the processes are based on the situations in developed countries. Therefore, several important uncertainties may exist when using these data to evaluate African conditions, especially for the least developed African economies. To solve these limitations, the Life-Cycle Initiative has promoted the "Global LCA Data Access network" (GLAD) to encourage the compatibility between the LCI databases and share information between different countries [218]. Several datasets can be found for African countries and future research could focus on improving these datasets.

The Need for an African LCIA Method
A second comment can be made when looking at the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) methods used in the different studies. Many of the models have been developed based on the situation in developed countries (i.e., in terms of the population, population density, meteorological conditions, etc.). This point has also been raised by M. Ghazi et al [20]. Only a few studies in our review used a global life cycle impact assessment method, namely, ReCiPe2016 [10], Impact World+ [219] or LIME3 [220]. These methods provide characterization factors for each impact that is specific to the global region or country. The accuracy of the damage assessment can be greatly improved; however, limitations still exist, for example, models for air pollution damage in these methods divided Africa into only a limited number of regions. Some improvements could be made to further take into account the specific socio-economic disparities between African countries in these methods.

Future Possible Topics of LCA Research
In this section, some potential research topics are raised from economic and environmental points of view. Environmental data were mainly collected from global popular databases used in LCA such as EDGARv5.0 [221] or FAOSTAT [6], economic information from OEC [5], and the world factbook from CIA [222].
A remark concerning all African countries can be raised, even though several reports from the UNEP [223] have highlighted the potential impacts of second-hand vehicles in African countries (imported mainly from Europe and the USA), there is no research paper that has focused on second-hand vehicles in Africa, despite the fact that the global LCA community has focused extensively on transport. The impact of tourism could be also studied furthermore, as the concern for sustainable tourism has been raised in recent years [224].
A description for each African country is provided in Table 2, regarding each aforementioned topic. -Attention could be paid to petroleum and natural gas extraction as it contributes considerably to the country's GDP. These two sectors represent 15% of the total CO 2 emissions [221]. -Electricity is almost only produced from natural gas [19], where it represents 25% of the total CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport represents 25% of CO 2 emissions [221] Angola -Cassava is a major source of revenue for agriculture, where its green WF was found to be higher than the global average (819 vs. 550 m 3 /ton) [225] -The burning of savanna represents more than 70% of the CO 2 emissions from the agricultural sector [6] -Oil-related extraction contributes to about 50% of the GDP [222] and about 20% of the country's CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport is the top sector for CO 2 emissions, representing nearly 25% [221] Benin -Attention has already been paid to tomatoes as one of the major sources of agricultural revenue. A focus on cassava and yam production could be interesting, as together they represent more than 50% of the country's agricultural revenue [6] -More than 50% of the country's total energy supply is from biofuel and waste products [19] -Road transport is the top sector for CO 2 emissions, accounting for nearly 75% [221] Botswana -The country's agriculture is not well developed. Roots and tubers account for most of the production [6] -Nearly 100% of the electricity is produced from coal [19], where the sector represents more than 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Mining activities represent up to 25% of the country's GDP [222], and this could be a potential research topic

Burkina Faso
-Sorghum and maize represent about 30% of crop revenue [6]. Their green WF was found to be two and three times higher, respectively, when compared with the global average [225] -More than 95% of the households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -Almost 50% of the country's total CO 2 emissions are due to road transport [221] -Gold mining represents a major source of revenue for exports (more than 75%) [5] Burundi -Bananas and cassava together represent about 50% of the revenue from agriculture [6]. Their green water footprint was found to be higher than the global average [225] -More than 95% of the households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -One third of the country's CO 2 emissions are from road transport [221] Cameroon -Exports of timber (especially to China) have been increasing in recent years (nearly 20% of the exports) [5] -Oil production is a solid pillar of the economy [5] and it is also the highest contributor to CO 2 emissions (43%) [221] -Road transport is the 2nd highest CO 2 emitter, accounting for nearly 25% of the total [221] Environments 2021, 8

Agriculture Energy Other
Cabo Verde x x -The tourism industry mainly contributes to the economy [222] Central African Republic x x -Gold and diamond mining significantly contribute to the economy [5] Chad -The agricultural sector is reported to have the 4 th highest CO 2 emissions in Africa, especially due to savanna burning [6] -Oil is a major source of revenue (85% of the exports) [5], where the sector represents more than more than one third of country's CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for more than one fifth of CO 2 emissions [221] Comoros -Coconuts are a major crop product; their green water footprint was found to be twice that of the global average [225] x -Road transport contributes to nearly 50% of the emissions [221] Congo DR -Cassava is the major crop produced, resulting in significant land burning before plantation. The burning of savanna represents more than 80% of the CO 2 emissions from the agricultural sector [6] -Nearly 100% of the total energy supply is from biofuel and waste products [19] -Mining products represent an important source of revenue, especially copper and cobalt [5] Djibouti x x -Important transportation infrastructure (e.g., Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway) has been under development recently [222].
Egypt -The use of synthetic fertilizers contributes to about one third of CO 2 emissions from the agricultural sector [6] -Electricity is mainly produced from fossil fuels (natural gas) [19], where the sector represents almost 40% of CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport represents 20% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Equatorial Guinea -Sweet potatoes and cassava are two major crops produced in the country, where their green WF was found to be four times higher than the global average [225] -The oil industry represents an importance source of revenue (more than 80% of exports [5]) and it represents 30% of CO 2 emissions [221] -The chemical industry represents a source of revenue for exports [5], where the sector represents 30% of country CO 2 emissions [221] Eritrea -Sorghum is the main crop produced, where its green WF was found with a water footprint more than twice that of the global average [225] -Almost 100% of the electricity is produced from oil [19], where the sector accounts for more than one half of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for more than 20% of CO 2 emissions [221] Eswatini -Sugarcane is the major crop produced in the country [6] -About one half of the country's CO 2 emissions are due to the electricity sector [221] -Road transport accounts for about one third of CO 2 emissions [221] Ethiopia -Emissions due to agriculture are reported to be the highest in Africa, especially due to manure management [6] -About 90% of the country's energy supply is from biofuel and waste products [226] -Road transport accounts for about one third of CO 2 emissions [221] Environments 2021, 8, 10 23 of 46

Agriculture Energy Other
Gabon -Cassava is one of the main crops produced [6], where its green WF was found to be higher than the global average (847 vs. 550 m 3 /ton) [225] -The oil and natural gas sectors are the main sources of revenue for the country, representing about 50% of CO 2 emissions [221] x Gambia -Groundnuts bring important revenue to agriculture; their green WF was found to be higher than the global average (3657 vs. 2469) [225] -More than 95% of the households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -Road transport accounts for about 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Ghana -The burning of savanna contributes to more than 40% of the CO 2 emissions from the agricultural sector [6] -Oil is an important source of revenue for exports [5], where the sector accounts for about 20% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about 40% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Guinea -Agriculture relies on rice production [6], where its green WF was found to be about four times higher than the global average (4004 vs. 1146 m 3 /ton) [225] -The electricity sector is responsible for about 20% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about 40% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -The country's growth relies on mining products, especially as has the highest bauxite reserve in the world [222] Guinea-Bissau -Agriculture relies extensively on rice production [6], where its green WF was found to be about three times higher than the global average (3291 vs. 1146 m 3 /ton) [225] -The electricity sector is responsible for about 20% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Cote d'Ivoire -Cocoa represents a major source of revenue [5], where the LCA results could be compared with its neighbors such as Ghana -More than 50% of the country's electricity is produced from fossil fuels (natural gas) [19], where the sector accounts for about one third of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about one third of the CO 2 emissions [221] Kenya -Agriculture represents one third of the GDP [222]. Tea production was assessed, and maize, potatoes, or sugarcane could be also studied -  -Road transport accounts for 25% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Morocco -The total energy consumption for agriculture is the third highest in Africa (more than 50,000 terajoules [6]) -The electricity sector accounts for more than one third of the CO 2 emissions [221], especially due to coal power plants [19] -Morocco was also the first destination in Africa for tourism (2018 data [228]), and the impact of the tourism sector could receive attention Mozambique -Cassava is the major crop produced, where its green WF was found to be twice that of the global average (1077 vs. 500 m 3 /ton) [225] -More than 95% of households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -The country relies on mineral fuels (coal) and aluminum for exports [5], and extraction processes could be further analyzed Namibia -More than 50% of the CO 2 emissions related to agricultural sector are due to the burning of savanna [6] x -The country relies on mineral extraction, such as diamond and uranium extraction.

Niger
-Millet is the main crop produced [6], where its green WF was found to be two times higher than the global average (10,330 vs. 4306 m 3 /ton) [225] -Nearly 100% of the electricity is produced from fossil fuels (coal and oil) [19], where the sector accounts for more than 20% of the country's CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Nigeria -Agriculture represents the second highest CO 2 emissions in Africa [221]. Cassava has received attention, and in addition, yams and maize could be examined as other major crops [6] -Oil is a major source of revenue for the country [5], where it represents 20% of the country's CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about one third of the CO 2 emissions [221] Republic of Congo -Cassava and sugarcane are the two main crops [6] -Oil a major source of revenue for exports [5], where the sector is responsible for 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport accounts for about one third of the CO 2 emissions [221] Rwanda -The country mainly relies on agriculture, especially bananas and cassava [6] -Almost all households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -Road transport accounts for about 40% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Sao tome & Principe -Cocoa beans are a major source of revenue for exports [5] x x Senegal -Rice and groundnuts are the two main crops [6] -Most of the electricity is produced from oil, where the sector contributes to about one quarter of the CO 2 emissions [221] -Gold and phosphoric mining-related revenues have been increasing in recent years [5] and could lead to an increase in environmental impacts -Road transport accounts for about 10% of the CO 2 emissions [221] South Sudan x -Oil production is a major driver of the economy [5] x Sudan -The agricultural sector is the 3rd largest for CO 2 emissions in Africa, with sugarcane, sorghum, and millet as major crops. -Sudan is also the largest exporter of Arabic gum [222] - -The country has been increasing its production of oil for exports [5] -Road transport accounts for more than 50% of the CO 2 emissions [221] Tunisia -The agricultural sector has already received attention, where its energy usage was found to be the fourth highest in Africa [6] -Electricity is mostly produced from natural gas [19], where the sector accounts for about one third of CO 2 emissions [221] -Road transport account for about one fifth of the CO 2 emissions [221] Uganda -The economy mostly relies on agriculture, especially coffee [5] -More than 95% of the households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -Gold mining operations have been increasing in recent years [5] Zambia -Maize and cassava are the two main crops produced, where their green WFs were higher than global averages [225] -More than 80% of the households use solid fuels for cooking [226] -The mining industry (mostly copper) brings significant revenues [5] Zimbabwe -Sugarcane, Maize, and Cassava are the major crops [6] and tobacco also brings important revenue from exports [5] -About 40% of the electricity is produced from coal [I1], where the sector is responsible for more than one half of the CO 2 emissions [221] -The economy depends on mining (especially gold) [5] Environments 2021, 8, 10 26 of 46

Conclusions
A total of 199 peer-reviewed LCA articles were found for Africa. The interest in LCA for the continent has been growing in the last ten years, but it remains far less than in other countries, including developing countries, located in Asia such as Thailand. The most active African countries are South Africa (43), Egypt (23), and Tunisia (19). It was observed that several countries (especially those in central Africa) were not paid attention. For example, a country such as the DR Congo, whose population may exceed 200 million in 2050, has not yet been the subject of research. With the predicted economic and population growth, the already existing environmental impacts might increase in Africa in the near future. The number of LCA researchers based in Africa is still limited, and it appears important to prioritize education and training of the life cycle thinking for the continent.
African LCA has mainly focused on agricultural products and energy, representing almost half of the research topics. Fisheries, fruits, and vegetables have received considerable attention as well as biofuel. However, several key products of the African economy were not paid attention such as second-hand vehicles or natural resources (oil, natural gas, mining products, etc.). With the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) commencing as of 1 January 2021, trade between African countries might intensify, and the need for sustainable production could become very important.
As shown in Table 1, one of this review's key messages is that research has been mainly conducted with LCI databases that are not specific to African countries. The usage of global LCIA methods also remains scarce. Several key economic sectors for African countries have not yet been assessed.
This lack of tools specific to African countries to conduct LCA could lead to uncertainties in consequent results. Future research could probably focus on developing an LCI database that is specific to the African continent and on improving the resolution of impact assessment models to include a higher number of African regions. Data Availability Statement: All data is available in this manuscript.

Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.  Table A1. Gross domestic product (GDP) [224] of African countries and articles per sector (the sum of the different columns is not necessarily always equal to the sum of the last column, as, for example, "reviews" cannot be inserted into any sector).