Traditional Use of Wild and Domestic Fauna among Different Ethnic Groups in the Western Himalayas—A Cross Cultural Analysis

Simple Summary In traditional medicinal systems, animals play an essential role in treating health issues (zoo therapy) as different body parts are used to treat different diseases. Meanwhile, local traditional knowledge (TK) is an important aspect of cultural legacy that can depict the relationship between communities and nature. Recently ethnobiologists have focused on cross-cultural research in order to document and measure the processes that govern the evolution of traditional knowledge within a culture, as well as to use it in the future. In the present study, we documented ethnozoological knowledge across eight ethnic groups in the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas. Comparative analysis indicated that Balti and Brokapa were more closely related groups due to high overlap (N = 7) of the use of medicinal species. A total of thirteen idiosyncratic species were recorded for the Kashmiri ethnic group, followed by two idiosyncratic species (Anser indicus, Perdix hodgsoniae) for Balti and two idiosyncratic species (Capra aegagrus hircus, Cuon alpinus) for Changapa. The Pearson correlation coefficient supported the strength and direction of a link between ethnic groups and regions. Cluster analyses revealed two primary clusters of the 79 animal species recorded for eight ethnozoological uses based on fauna similarity. Furthermore, all ethnic groups primarily used the fauna for medicinal and food purposes. Chest infections were frequently treated by the maximum number of species (N = 9), followed by paralysis by seven species. The current ethnozoological study provides needed information such as cross-cultural traditional knowledge of medicine, food, and religious value; combining ethnic knowledge with a scientific approach can make a significant contribution to the long-term development of native communities. Abstract Animal-derived products have an important role in treating many health conditions and have widely been used across cultures. In South Asia, ethnozoological research has been conducted only by a small number of researchers. Therefore, this area of research needs further exploration in order to preserve the eroding ethnozoological knowledge of medicinal animals severely affected by ongoing social change. This study was conducted in the region of Jammu and Kashmir from February 2019 to August 2021. The study was carried out among eight different ethnic groups living in the region. A total of 374 informants were selected and data were collected through semi-structured interviews and verified through group discussions. Data was analyzed using different statistical tools, including R 4.0.0. The cross-cultural data were compared through Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Genomics software and later subjected to further analysis, applying Pearson correlation and ordination techniques (Principal Component Analysis). We recorded a total of 79 animal species being used by the eight studied ethnic groups in the region. Wild animal species were mainly used for therapeutic purposes. Chest infections, sexual problems, and paralysis were frequently treated diseases. Flesh was the most commonly part used. The cross-cultural comparison showed a remarkable heterogeneity in the use of the animals among the different groups, which could be an effect to the historical sociocultural stratifications, as well as different religious affiliation of certain groups preventing them to forage or hunt certain animals. Some groups however showed prominent overlap of uses of some recorded species. For instance, Lerwalerwa and Bubalus bubalis were commonly used by both Gujjar and Pahari, which could be referred to the fact that they have gone through significant socio-cultural contact, and they are exogamous to each other. The Pearson correlation coefficient supported the strength and direction of an association between ethnic groups and regions. The study makes an important contribution to the field of ethnozoology in the Himalayas by providing insights to understand the historical human and nature relationships and supplying a baseline for developing future conservation efforts in the region to protect the wild fauna

Simple Summary: In traditional medicinal systems, animals play an essential role in treating health issues (zoo therapy) as different body parts are used to treat different diseases. Meanwhile, local traditional knowledge (TK) is an important aspect of cultural legacy that can depict the relationship between communities and nature. Recently ethnobiologists have focused on cross-cultural research in order to document and measure the processes that govern the evolution of traditional knowledge within a culture, as well as to use it in the future. In the present study, we documented ethnozoological knowledge across eight ethnic groups in the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas. Comparative analysis indicated that Balti and Brokapa were more closely related groups due to high overlap (N = 7) of the use of medicinal species. A total of thirteen idiosyncratic species were recorded for the Kashmiri ethnic group, followed by two idiosyncratic species (Anser indicus, Perdix hodgsoniae) for Balti and two idiosyncratic species (Capra aegagrus hircus, Cuon alpinus) for Changapa. The Pearson correlation coefficient supported the strength and direction of a link between ethnic groups and regions. Cluster analyses revealed two primary clusters of the 79 animal species recorded for eight ethnozoological uses based on fauna similarity. Furthermore, all ethnic groups primarily used the fauna for medicinal and food purposes. Chest infections were frequently treated by the maximum number of species (N = 9), followed by paralysis by seven species. The current ethnozoological study provides needed information such as cross-cultural traditional knowledge of medicine, food, and religious value; combining ethnic knowledge with a scientific approach can make a significant contribution to the long-term development of native communities.
Abstract: Animal-derived products have an important role in treating many health conditions and have widely been used across cultures. In South Asia, ethnozoological research has been conducted only by a small number of researchers. Therefore, this area of research needs further exploration

Introduction
Between ethnic communities, there is normally a variation of the usage of animal species due to their cultural legacy [1]. Environmental and economic factors also determine the usage of species [2]. Local and indigenous communities often use a variety of species for their survival, highlighting the vital role of fauna in their lives [3]. The use of animals is not limited to food and medicine, but includes entertainment, magic, religion, trade, and tools [4][5][6][7][8] all throughout human history, e.g., reflected in cave wall paintings [9,10]. The knowledge of using particular species for a particular purpose is obtained over time and passed onto future generations [10]. Endemic traditional knowledge is an important facet of cultural heritage, indicating a close association between people and nature [9]. Almost 8.7% of important chemical compounds of allopathic medicine are obtained from animals [11][12][13]. Despite this importance, plants are still prioritized over animals [14]. In traditional Chinese medicine, 1500 animal species are used, and in Unani medicine, 500 species, denoting the importance of fauna in traditional medicinal systems [15]. India has a great diversity of animal species, harboring almost 10% of the global fauna, and ranking first in terms of insect diversity, followed by fish, birds, reptiles, mammals, and amphibians [15]. In India, about 70% of the rural population lacks modern healthcare facilities and thus depend on traditional medicinal systems [15]. Due to factors such as urbanization and industrialization, these communities are losing socioeconomic and cultural characteristics, including traditional medicinal knowledge. In this regard, it becomes imperative to document this traditional knowledge [16][17][18][19][20]. The exploration and documentation of indigenous knowledge is vital to obtain first-hand information about the different usage of animals [21][22][23]. Moreover, with the growing challenge of resistance of pathogens against allopathic medicine, there is a dire need to investigate new combinations of natural constituents with additive and synergistic effects [24,25]. According to Leonti and Casu [20], the documentation of ancestral knowledge in ethno-biological surveys may cover the existing gap to discover effective drugs. The erstwhile state of Jammu and Kashmir is well known for its rich diversity due to its topographical, altitudinal, and geographical variation [26]. Various ethnic communities live in this potential traditional knowledge area [27,28]. The present study focused on (1) documentation of the medicinal uses of wild and domestic birds and mammals among the local communities in the study region. (2) Comparison of the recorded data from different cultural groups in order to understand the socio-cultural connections that have influenced the cultural knowledge of individuals from each ethnic group. This is the first cross-cultural ethnozoological study carried out in the region. We hope that the results of the study will provide baseline data for future conservation programs in the region and that policy makers would pay attention to preserve the cultural heritage and protect the wild fauna of the region.

Study Area
Jammu and Kashmir (Figure 1), former princely states of India, were recently separated into two union territories (Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh) by the Central Government of India (https://egazette.nic.in/WriteReadData/2019/210407.pdf) (accessed on 17 January 2021). The region is bordered to the northeast by the Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang (China), to the east by the Tibet Autonomous Region (China), and the Chinese-administered portions of Kashmir, to the south by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, to the southwest by Pakistan, and the northwest by the Pakistani-administered portion of Kashmir. Geographically, Jammu and Kashmir comprise rugged mountains and barren slopes. Based on the Koppen classification, Jammu and Kashmir have a Dfb (Warm-summer humid continental climate) where as Ladakh has a Dwd climate (Monsoon-influenced extremely cold subarctic climate) [29,30]. The environmental conditions of Jammu are not uniform, i.e., the region comprises sub-tropical plains with hot summers and cold winters with monsoonal climes and is highlands temperate. The region of Kashmir is temperate with warm summers and cold winters. Ladakh is a high altitude cold arid region deprived of vegetation. As a result, the availability of resources is varied and distinct, especially that which lies between the trans-Himalayan Ladakh region and the more sub-tropical and temperate Jammu and Kashmir. Jammu and Kashmir also harbor rich ethnic and cultural diversity. According to the 2011 Census (https://uidai.gov.in/images/state-wise-aadhaar-saturation.pdf) (accessed on 17 January 2021), the population of Jammu and Kashmir was 13,606,320, divided into Muslims (67% of the population), Hindus (about 30%), Sikhs (2%), and Buddhists (1%).

Field Study
The present study was based on a field survey conducted among the different ethnic groups, such as the Pahari, Gujjar, Bakarwal, Dogra, Kashmiri, Brokpa, Balti, and Changapa, following different faiths, such as Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, as recorded across the study area (Table 1). Prior to each interview, verbal consent was obtained from the participants and the Code of Ethics adopted by the international Society of Ethno-biology was followed [33]. Random sampling was used to gather information using semi-structured and open-ended discussions [26]. We interviewed 374 respondents, among which 216 were men and 158 were women (Table 1). A total of 25 field visits during the survey were made. Mammals and birds were identified using the field guides and following the literature [34][35][36][37][38]. Taxonomic identification was carried out by using the online database "Integrated Taxonomic Information System" (https://www.itis.gov) (accessed on 17 August 2021) and using the regional literature [26,31]. We have also compared the recorded data with the previous ethnobiological literature carried out in the nearby regions, particularly surrounding the Himalayan regions [10,26,32,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]. The conservation assessment of documented fauna species was done as per the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2019) Red List(www.iucnredlist.org/) (accessed on 17 August 2021) and used the regional literature [31].

Field Study
The present study was based on a field survey conducted among the different ethnic groups, such as the Pahari, Gujjar, Bakarwal, Dogra, Kashmiri, Brokpa, Balti, and Changapa, following different faiths, such as Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, and Buddhism, as recorded across the study area (Table 1). Prior to each interview, verbal consent was obtained from the participants and the Code of Ethics adopted by the international Society of Ethno-biology was followed [33]. Random sampling was used to gather information using semi-structured and open-ended discussions [26]. We interviewed 374 respondents, among which 216 were men and 158 were women (Table 1). A total of 25 field visits during the survey were made. Mammals and birds were identified using the field guides and following the literature [34][35][36][37][38]. Taxonomic identification was carried out by using the online database "Integrated Taxonomic Information System" (https://www.itis.gov) (accessed on 17 August 2021) and using the regional literature [26,31]. We have also compared the recorded data with the previous ethnobiological literature carried out in the nearby regions, particularly surrounding the Himalayan regions [10,26,32,[39][40][41][42][43][44][45]. The conservation assessment of documented fauna species was done as per the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2019) Red List (www.iucnredlist.org/) (accessed on 17 August 2021) and used the regional literature [31].

Socio Economic Background
Most of the ethnic groups in the study area are associated with agriculture, livestock, and allied services [32]. Kashmiri and Dogra are associated with agriculture and horticulture, and many are government job holders, shopkeepers, daily wage laborers, and craftsmen. Gujjar and Bakarwal are mostly linked with livestock rearing of a nomadic nature, Balti are associated with cattle rearing and horticulture, Brokapa are related with cattle rearing and horticulture and many are wage laborers, Changapa are mostly nomadic associated with goats. Most of the Kashmiri live in the valley (Kashmir), Dogra mostly live in Jammu, Gujjar and Bakarwal have populated Kishtawar, Rajouri of Jammu region, however, they also tend migrate to the valley of Kashmir in summer for grazing their livestock, whereas Balti, Changapa, and Brokapa live in the Ladakh region. The Changapa also known as Champa are semi-nomadic and mainly seen in the Changtang area. Gujjars are a large heterogeneous group mostly found in hilly areas, and are dependent on nature, and the most important inhabiting areas from Kashmir include "Karnah, Keran, and Tangdaar", and from Jammu, "Poonch, Rajouri, and Kishtawar" are notable sites. These people are unique in their culture with a potential traditional knowledge. Pahari live in lower Himalayas and are also found in hilly areas, often close to Gujjar, and many of them are also found in low lying areas (near to Kashmiri). The Kashmiri are mostly seen in the Kashmir and are engaged in rapid urbanization; hence, people here are less dependent on nature, however, they are still associated with agriculture, of which paddy cultivation is the prime concern. Bakarwal are nomads and herd in high-altitude regions. They migrate across Jammu and Kashmir with respect to season, and during the maximum time of year they can be seen in the Rajouri and Kishtawar area. These people have a command of the origin of flora and fauna across the western Himalayas as they are totally dependent on their livestock and nature. Dogra are mostly found in the areas such as Reasi, Kathua, and Sambha, in the Jammu region. Balti are located in Ladakh, especially in the Kargil district, but also live in Leh. Brokapa also inhabit Ladakh. Changapa are high-altitude pastoralists inhabiting the Changtang region, raising goats, the highly pedigreed and prized Changra goat that yields luxurious pashmina fibers.

Data Analysis
Data was analyzed using Principal Component Analysis (PCA) [26]. PCA was used to find hypothetical variables (components) that account for as much of the variance in our multi-dimensional data as possible. For that, we used a matrix of presence/absence of animal species in each of the ethnic groups in the three regions studied and calculated the singular valued composition of the (centered and possibly scaled) data matrix. PCA was done using the Software R Studio 4.0.1. With PCA, we elucidated how each, or a set of species, were related to each region and ethnic groups evaluated. Bioinformatics and Evolutionary Genomics software were used to conduct cross-cultural comparisons between ethnic groups [46,47]. We computed the correlation coefficient between the ethnic groups (Pahari, Gujjar, Kashmiri, Dogra, Bakarwal, Brokpa, Balti, and Changapa) and regions using the Pearson method. Results were plotted in a correlogram [48] with the corrplot package [49].

Ethnozoological Inventory
The current study recorded 79 animal species used by ethnic people. The study is the first detailed survey on the use of wild and domesticated animals and birds used in local medicines and other ethno-uses in the Himalayan region. Data were grouped into two categories, i.e., domestic (N = 14) and wild (N = 65), and in both groups (birds, mammals). The domestic species belonged to five families, i.e., Bovidae (N = 7) was the dominant family, followed by Anatidae, Camelidae, Equidae (N = 2 each), and Phasianidae (N = 1). Wild species were scattered into 23 families in which Anatidae (N = 12) was the dominant family, followed by Phasianidae (N = 11) and Bovidae (N = 10). Data presented here for Animals 2022, 12, 2276 7 of 28 each of the quoted species along with its zoological name, local name, zoological family, parts used, and medicinal uses are provided in Table 2. Results reveal that the local people have frequently reported wild animal species over the domestic for medicinal uses. This can be attributed to the belief of ethnic communities in traditional medical systems that prioritize wild fauna over domestic. Similar use of animals for zoo-therapy and other ethnozoological purposes was described by Verma et al. [50] from Assam, India, and Castillo and Ladio [51] in Argentina. Barbosa et al. [52] reported the dominance with respect to ethnozoological usage of wild fauna over domestic from the north-eastern area of Brazil; furthermore, the usage ascendency of wild fauna is common among ethnic communities at the global level [53,54].
Findings showed that that meat (41%) was the dominant part used by the local communities for medicinal purposes followed by feces (6%), fur (5%), skin (5%), horn (5%), blood (5%), trotters (4%), feathers (3%), hair (3%), bile (2%), claws (2%), tongue (2%), liver (2%), eggs (2%), gizzard (1%), gallbladder (1%), urine (1%), teeth (1%), eyes (1%), tail (1%), and musk (1%) ( Figure 2). All the reported medicinal species (domestic, wild) were found in the study area, and many bird species were migratory. Local people hunted wild species for medicinal as well as for food and other uses. It is important to note that the Dogra community has to follow certain religious obligations and they tend to avoid hunting, whereas the rest of the ethnic groups have always been engaged in hunting and foraging processes. The documented species play a vital role in traditional medicinal systems for the Unani, Ayurveda, and Sowa-Rigpa, who employ different parts of the species for variety of ailments. It is believed that home therapies are more efficient in treating various kinds of health. In the study area, traditional use of home-based remedies is associated with two kinds of belief systems, known as (a) Saad gaza and (b) Garailov alaj. Saad gazza simply means "simple diet" and people believe that a good and simple diet is itself a medicinal food and keeps diseases away. Similarly, Garailov alaj consists of medicinal remedies obtained from different animals at the home level and used to treat primary health disorders. It is also relevant to mention that although hunting has been banned by the government, people still poach wild animals for its use as food and for medicinal purposes whenever they need. It is also interesting that hunting is relatively easy in the winter season, as wild animals come out from their habitats and go around to seek food and, therefore, the hunter has the maximum possibility to find them. Flesh is made into amulets to ward off evil.
Flesh is cooked without oil to treat epilepsy and plague. Tongue, stomach, and blood are cooked without oil to cure inflammation, to increase digestion and treat diabetes, respectively.

Markhor * Flesh Horns
Flesh is cooked and consumed as food; meanwhile, long and spiraling horns are used as trophies.
Horn is used as a trophy and decoration. Foam from the mouth is used as poison.
Horns are powdered, taken with hot water to treat chest infections. Least concern Gujjar Pahari Bakarwal Balti Brokapa Changapa Cuon alpinus Pallas, 1811 (Canidae) (Cuo.alp) Tongue is skinned off, sundried, grinded and mixed with seeds of fennel powder and used to treat ulcers.

Flesh Antlers
Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
Antlers are used for decorative purposes.
Antlers are burned to ashes and taken orally to treat hematuria. Ashes mixed with water to form paste, applied to affected areas to treat fracture, ulcers and acute pain.

Hemitragus jemlahicus
Hodgson  Flesh is cooked and consumed as food. Skin is employed for costume making.
-  Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
Flesh is cooked and consumed as food. - Ovis    Flesh is cooked and consumed as food. Bird is also kept in a small cage for amusement.
Fat is boiled to produce pale yellow oil among which 1-2 drops are dropped inside the ear to treat pain. Flesh is cooked, believed to treat gout and to maintain virility. Soup obtained from flesh is used for the treatment of paralysis.

Least Concern
Gujjar Pahari Bakarwal Balti Brokapa Changapa Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.

Shataan (K) (Indian Pond Heron) Claws
It is associated with the tales that it is an incarnation of the devil. Claws are rarely used in black magic.
Flesh is cooked and given to the patients suffering from asthma and paralysis. Fresh blood is given to the patients suffering from mild stroke. Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
Live onesare used to perform black magic by locking an amulet in mouth or to a leg.
Flesh is cooked and given to the patients suffering from asthma and paralysis. Fresh blood is used to treat mild strokes. Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
-----------Least Concern Kashmiri Gall bladder is sun dried, powdered, and added with powdered rice and pond water to form a paste which is applied around the eyes to increase eyesight. Urinary incontinence is treated by mixing the fat with Adiantum venustum (Gewvtheer) plant and taken orally.
Feathers are burned to ash which is used topically to treat skin diseases. Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
Egg shells are powdered, mixed with dates and milk, and taken orally to treat infertility in males.

Least Concern
Kashmiri Balti Brokapa Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
It is believed that soup obtained from female flesh keeps heart issues away. Blood is used with curd and salt to treat wounds.

Flesh Faeces Feathers
Flesh is cooked and consumed as food.
In Hinduism, peafowl is treated as sacred, known as the vehicle of the deity Kartakia (Son of Lord Shiva). Feathers are used as decoration and believed to bring fortune and wealth. Birds are also watched for amusement because of their attractive plumage.
Faeces are painted on the forehead and feet to overcome fever.   Ox is also used in ploughing agricultural fields and is treated sacred in the Hindu faith.

Least Concern Dogra
Trotters are also eaten to maintain fluids in joints. Roasted spleen is used to treat coughs. Dung is painted on the untreated wound to remove larvae.
---- Fat is used to reduce swelling and increase sexual potential.
--------------- Milk is consumed to sharpen memory, lower body heat, and to treat stomach ulcers. Trotters are cooked and eaten to maintain fluids in the joints. Soup obtained from the brain is used to treat paralysis.
---- Milk is consumed as foodand to sharpen memory. Flesh is cooked and consumed as food, body hair (pashmina) is used in costumes. Shawls are made from this pashmina, which have a very high price on the international market.
----Changapa Flesh is cooked and eaten as food. Soup obtained from trotters is used to gain strength. Wool is used in costumes. Liver, kidneys, head, and tongue are used in black magic. Hide is used for praying by Muslims. Fat is used in local recipes such as Wazwaan. Pellets are treated as best fertilizers for apple orchids, also believed to stop diseases in said orchids.
--------------- Flesh is cooked and eaten as food. level and used to treat primary health disorders. It is also relevant to mention that although hunting has been banned by the government, people still poach wild animals for its use as food and for medicinal purposes whenever they need. It is also interesting that hunting is relatively easy in the winter season, as wild animals come out from their habitats and go around to seek food and, therefore, the hunter has the maximum possibility to find them.

Medicinal Use of Documented Species
The documented medicinal species (wild/domestic) were used to treat different diseases. Wild species were used for 29 diseases, which included chest infections, sexual diseases, paralysis, ulcer, arthritis, body weakness, cancer, cataract, gynecological dis-

Medicinal Use of Documented Species
The documented medicinal species (wild/domestic) were used to treat different diseases. Wild species were used for 29 diseases, which included chest infections, sexual diseases, paralysis, ulcer, arthritis, body weakness, cancer, cataract, gynecological diseases, wounds, urinary diseases, gout, epilepsy, plague, inflammation, liver diseases, hemorrhoids, tuberculosis, dermatitis, leprosy, heart diseases, eye diseases, diabetes, blood purifier, foot burning issues, fracture, pain, diarrhea, and cold (Table 2). Chest infections were frequently treated by the most number (N = 9) of species, i.e., Capra sibirica hemalayanus, Ovis aries vignei, Panthera uncia, Ursus arctos, Columba leuconota, Columba livia, Lerwa lerwa, Pucrasia macrolopha, and Tetraogallus himalayensis, followed by paralysis treated by seven species (Macaca mulatta, Ursus arctos, Ursus thibetanus, Alectoris chukar, Columba leuconota, Columba livia, Tetraogallus tibetanus). In the study area, winter is very cold, therefore, it could be attributed to the fact that the major categories of diseases were chest infections (i.e., cough, cold). Sexual diseases were commonly treated by the ingredients derived from Lutra lutra, Moschus moschiferus, Mareca Penelope, and Perdix hodgsoniae ( Table 2). The PCA revealed significant variance between use of species and ethnic groups, with certain groups of species being more associated to one ethical group than another (Figure 3a,b). For example, dermatitis is treated by the urine of Equus africanus asinus in Gujjar and Bakarwal; similarly, skinned off and sundried tongue of Cuon alpinus is used to treat ulcers in Changapa (Table 2). PC1 and PC2 explain percentages of the total variation in the species distribution in the biplot, in which species grouped in clusters are closely correlated to those particularly ethnic groups. A biplot shows how the species in the PCA relate to one another (which samples are similar and which are distinct) while also revealing how each variable contributes to each principle component.
Gujjar and Bakarwal; similarly, skinned off and sundried tongue of Cuon alpinus is used to treat ulcers in Changapa (Table 2). PC1 and PC2 explain percentages of the total variation in the species distribution in the biplot, in which species grouped in clusters are closely correlated to those particularly ethnic groups. A biplot shows how the species in the PCA relate to one another (which samples are similar and which are distinct) while also revealing how each variable contributes to each principle component.  Table 2.
Machkour et al. [26] from the Himalayas reported the use of fauna species across ethnic communities in Mexico for medicinal usage (zootherapy).Jugli et al. [55] reported the use of different wild animals and birds such as Ursus arctos for toothache and Columba livia for weakness across two ethnic groups (Tangsa and Wancho) from North-East India. Altaf et al. [39] reported the use of Hystrix indica for treating skin infections, rheumatic pains, Rattus rattusfor convulsions, joint pain, and wound healing, across local ethnic communities from Punjab Pakistan. Dhakal et al. [44] reported the use of Muntiacus muntjac for overcoming constipation and food poisoning, Ursus thibetanus for fever, liver  Table 2.
Machkour et al. [26] from the Himalayas reported the use of fauna species across ethnic communities in Mexico for medicinal usage (zootherapy).Jugli et al. [55] reported the use of different wild animals and birds such as Ursus arctos for toothache and Columba livia for weakness across two ethnic groups (Tangsa and Wancho) from North-East India. Altaf et al. [39] reported the use of Hystrix indica for treating skin infections, rheumatic pains, Rattus rattusfor convulsions, joint pain, and wound healing, across local ethnic communities from Punjab Pakistan. Dhakal et al. [44] reported the use of Muntiacus muntjac for overcoming constipation and food poisoning, Ursus thibetanus for fever, liver disorders, heart diseases, and body ache, Vulpes for joint pain, Hemitragus jemlahicus for dysentery in local communities from the Sikkim Himalayas in India. Negi and Kandari [43] reported the use of Pseudois nayaur for stomach pain and fever, Canis familiaris for epilepsy, skin diseases, and earache, Panthera pardus for weakness, body pain, and sexual stimulant, and Macaca malatta for asthma and rheumatism from the Bhotiya tribe from Uttarakhand, India.
Results also showed that only 13 diseases, i.e., chest infections, sexual issues, ulcers, arthritis, body weakness, cracked heals, cyst, gynecological issues, wounds, chilblains, dandruff, and dermatitis, were treated with parts obtained from domestic fauna ( Table 2). Among the enlisted diseases, sexual issues were treated with the highest number (N = 5) of species (Camelus bactrianus, Camelus dromedaries, Anser anser domesticus, Gallus gallus domesticus, Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) followed by arthritis using three species (Bos grunniens, Camelus bactrianus, Camelus dromedaries). Dermatitis was treated using two species (Equus ferus caballus and Equus africanus asinus). Altaf et al. [39] reported the use of different domestic species to overcome weakness, to sharpen memory, and as an antidote and sexual stimulant in Pakistan. Similarly, Jugli et al. [55] reported the use of species such as Gallus gallus domesticus for body burns, Capra hircus for early detachment of the umbilical cord in the Indian Himalayas. Castillo and Ladio [51] reported the use of Capra aegagrus hircus to treat empacho (indigestion), and Gallus gallus domesticus for burns in Argentina. Other similar studies which are in accordance include Mahawar and Jaroli [56] and Quave et al. [57]. It is very important to mention that medicinal purposes are restricted to a particular number of fauna species, in addition, for the treatment of diseases, plants are used often over animals due to diversity, wide availability, and easy collection.

Cross Cultural Comparison
Cross cultural comparisons (Table 3) of the recorded medicinal uses for the quoted species showed that only one species (Capra hircus) was used among all the ethnic groups. This is due to the fact that said species is domestic and, hence, is artificially implanted. Additionally, it is widely distributed in the western Himalayan regions and survives in all weather conditions. It is also referred to as the poor man's buffalo due to easy rearing and low cost of survival when compared to other animals. We found remarkable variations (mosaic pattern) in the use of the other reported medicinal species, however (Table 3). Comparative analysis indicated that Balti and Brokapa were more closely related groups due to high overlap (N = 7) of the use of species with medicinal properties (Athene noctua, Marmota himalayana, Tetraogallus tibetanus, Ovis ariesvignei, Camelus bactrianus, Vulpes ferrilata, Lutra lutra). This high overlap could be attributed to the same geographical location which has made it possible to have equal access to the resources under same socio-ecological conditions. Both groups are exogamous with each other ( Table 1). The use of species was affected by religious affiliation, e.g., Brokapa did not use dairy and poultry because of religious taboos. Their economic condition is also not stable as most are wage laborers. In spite of the prevailing laws (wildlife protection act 1972; https: //legislative.gov.in/sites/default/files/A1972-53_0.pdf (accessed on 17 August 2021)), this economic compulsion drives the population to use wild species for good earning, medicine, and food. In the Balti group, pious people were reluctant to use food and medicine obtained from wild animals. They believed that being wild made things impure and they contained wildness which could affect their piousness. It is important to note that a small number of people from both Balti and Brokapa were associated with camels (Camelus bactrianus) in the tourism industry. The use of camels is only during the summer and is halted during the winter due to heavy snowfall, which prevents the tourists from coming. In Changapa, although the prime source of medicine was animals (wild), killing fauna species for food is prohibited due to religious obligations; meanwhile, some use animals as food as long as the animals are not killed/slaughtered/poached for them. The prime source of food from animals is milk, which is mostly obtained from goats. Capra aegagrus hircus is a unique goat reared only by this ethnic group. A maximum of thirteen idiosyncratic uses for certain species i.e., Porphyrio poliocephalus, Hystrix indica, Streptopelia decaocto, Ardeola grayii, Cygnus Columbianus, Milvus migrans, Nettarufina, Anas poecilorhyncha, Spatula clypeata, Mareca penelope, Arborophila torqueola, Mareca Strepera, and Aythya ferina were recorded for the Kashmiri ethnic group. This is due to the reason that the valley of Kashmir shows a temperate climate with warm summers and a cold winter, which lures some diverse migrant water bird species from other parts of the world. These bird species are traditionally used for a variety of purposes, and can be easily seen in local water bodies i.e., (Dal lake, Wular lake, Nageen lake) surrounded (inhabited) by Kashmiri people. Only two idiosyncratic species (Anser indicus, Perdix hodgsoniae) were recorded for Balti and two idiosyncratic species (Capra aegagrus hircus, Cuon alpinus) for Changapa. The possible reason for the fewer number of idiosyncratic species is that both ethnic groups (Balti and Changapa) inhabit a high-altitude, cold, and arid region (Ladakh) that is deprived of vegetation and has a low diversity of species. Further, from the Table 3, it is quite clear that the Balti, Brokapa, and Changapa groups are more related to each other concerning species utilization, forming a group with most similarities. The same is true with the Gujjar, Bakarwal, Kashmir, and Pahari groups; meanwhile, both groups show dissimilarities regarding species usage.
The Pearson correlation coefficient further underlined the strength and direction of the association between ethnic groups (Figure 4a,b). The p-values are displayed at the top, and the Pearson correlation coefficients are displayed at the bottom (Figure 4a,b). Our findings are in accordance with Solanki and Chutia [58] from India who reported the diversity of use pattern of fauna across different ethnic groups. Similarly, Solavan et al. [59] reported the use of fauna across different ethnic communities in Tamil Nadu, India. Mahawar and Jaroli [56] revealed the use of animal fauna by different indigenous communities around Ranthambore National Park, India. Various ethnozoological studies by Haq et al. [60,61], Alves et al. [62], and Santos et al. [63] also used a quantitative ethnobiological approach in their studies.

Comparison with Other Ethnobiological Studies in the Nearby Regions
Literature comparisons have shown that some of the uses of recorded species were new to the ethnobiological literature, like, the liver of Marmota caudata is used to treat bone weakness, bones of Vulpes ferrilata to treat lung ulcers, back pain, and rheumatic pain, pelts of Rattus pyctoris to treat urinary incontinence, the flesh of Passer domesticus, Lerwa lerwa and Streptopelia decaocto for cardiac issues, common cold, and asthma, respectively. Powdered eggshells of Mareca Penelope were used to treat infertility in males. Young Aythya nyroca were cooked and eaten to gain strength after delivery. Fat of Aythya fuligula was used to treat neck pain and long feathers from wings used to overcome nightmares. The liver, kidneys, head, and tongue of Ovis aries were used to perform black magic, and likewise, the eyes, feathers, and blood of Milvus migrans are also used in black magic. The urine of Equus ferus caballus and Equus africanus asinus is used to treat dermatitis, dung of Equus ferus caballus to extract the larvae of pathogens from wounds, and hair from the tail was used to remove cysts developed on the skin. In addition to ethnozoological applications among the bio-geographic regions, we also found the practice of taxidermy (art in the preservation and restoration of dead specimens for long term storage and display). In Kashmir and Jammu, people take advantage of this technique during the time when a calf of a cow dies, and the cow is reluctant to give milk. The skin of calf is knifed out and mounted around straw to look like a new calf, allowing the owner to milk the cow easily. Meanwhile, in Ladakh, people restore slaughtered or dead yak ( Figure 5) by stuffing the skin with straw. The obtained specimen is kept in hotel galleries as an art display and decoration.

Comparison with Other Ethnobiological Studies in the Nearby Regions
Literature comparisons have shown that some of the uses of recorded species were new to the ethnobiological literature, like, the liver of Marmota caudata is used to treat bone weakness, bones of Vulpes ferrilata to treat lung ulcers, back pain, and rheumatic pain, pelts of Rattus pyctoris to treat urinary incontinence, the flesh of Passer domesticus, Lerwa lerwa and Streptopelia decaocto for cardiac issues, common cold, and asthma, respectively. Powdered eggshells of Mareca Penelope were used to treat infertility in males. Young Aythya nyroca were cooked and eaten to gain strength after delivery. Fat of Aythya fuligula was used to treat neck pain and long feathers from wings used to overcome nightmares. The liver, kidneys, head, and tongue of Ovis aries were used to perform black magic, and likewise, the eyes, feathers, and blood of Milvus migrans are also used in black magic. The urine of Equus ferus caballus and Equus africanus asinus is used to treat dermatitis, dung of Equus ferus caballus to extract the larvae of pathogens from wounds, and hair from the tail was used to remove cysts developed on the skin. In addition to ethnozoological applications among the bio-geographic regions, we also found the practice of taxidermy (art in the preservation and restoration of dead specimens for long term storage and display). In Kashmir and Jammu, people take advantage of this technique during the time when a calf of a cow dies, and the cow is reluctant to give milk. The skin of calf is knifed out and mounted around straw to look like a new calf, allowing the owner to milk the cow easily. Meanwhile, in Ladakh, people restore slaughtered or dead yak ( Figure 5) by stuffing the skin with straw. The obtained specimen is kept in hotel galleries as an art display and decoration.

Conservation of Species
To understand the background of the relationship between mankind and natural resources is very important for the drafting of fauna conservation strategies [64]. In this regard, ethnozoology provides required information such as traditional knowledge of medicine, food, and culture, and hence, make a significant contribution [65][66][67][68]. In order to maintain wild species survival while continuing to meet global demand for biological resources, it is vital to identify and manage the implications of hazards associated with their use. Local people rely on wild species for medicine and food, and they have cultural and religious value as well. Various animal species have become a favorite target due to their use by indigenous communities in traditional systems of medicines and other uses resulting in the decline of species, which puts them into different IUCN categories ( Table  2). We concluded that tribal groups constitute a major threat to fauna species because of a lack of modern services (medical, education), and the communities are typically disadvantaged owing to economic limitations. The fauna species in the respective place become an easy target for these tribes, such as bear (Ursus thibetanus) being killed for bile for the treatment of jaundice, Markhor (Capra falconeri) being slaughtered for meat and trophies, and Kashmiri stag (Cervus hanglu) being poached for food, medicine, and trophies. There is an urgent need to address the issue by implementing a community-based conservation (CBC) development programme that will include the government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and citizens who have been impacted by wildlife (tribal communities and other communities), and other interested groups. This initiative will not only safeguard wild fauna, but it will also solve the challenges that lo-

Conservation of Species
To understand the background of the relationship between mankind and natural resources is very important for the drafting of fauna conservation strategies [64]. In this regard, ethnozoology provides required information such as traditional knowledge of medicine, food, and culture, and hence, make a significant contribution [65][66][67][68]. In order to maintain wild species survival while continuing to meet global demand for biological resources, it is vital to identify and manage the implications of hazards associated with their use. Local people rely on wild species for medicine and food, and they have cultural and religious value as well. Various animal species have become a favorite target due to their use by indigenous communities in traditional systems of medicines and other uses resulting in the decline of species, which puts them into different IUCN categories (Table 2). We concluded that tribal groups constitute a major threat to fauna species because of a lack of modern services (medical, education), and the communities are typically disadvantaged owing to economic limitations. The fauna species in the respective place become an easy target for these tribes, such as bear (Ursus thibetanus) being killed for bile for the treatment of jaundice, Markhor (Capra falconeri) being slaughtered for meat and trophies, and Kashmiri stag (Cervus hanglu) being poached for food, medicine, and trophies. There is an urgent need to address the issue by implementing a community-based conservation (CBC) development programme that will include the government, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and citizens who have been impacted by wildlife (tribal communities and other communities), and other interested groups. This initiative will not only safeguard wild fauna, but it will also solve the challenges that local ethnic communities confront (which entice and drive them to rely on the wild). The best example of CBC comes from Tanzania, where wildlife species were protected while local populations were addressed [69].

Conclusions
This study emphasizes the importance of ethnozoological uses among the different ethnic groups in the erstwhile states of Jammu and Kashmir. The uses varied by ethnic groups, and the reliance on wildlife was consistent across the board. Furthermore, all ethnic groups exploited the fauna primarily for medicinal and food purposes. However, there is little precise documentation of such fascinating traditional knowledge in the study area. Over time, modern progress has accelerated and these traditional processes may be negatively impacted, threatening their survival in the foreseeable future. As a result, serious efforts must be made to preserve traditional knowledge as well as threatened wild species. Meanwhile, the present study could be valuable for investigations on pharmacological profile, and in-vitro and in-vivo investigations of biological compounds from the documented fauna could be interesting for the development of novel animal-based drugs to treat various health disorders. It is important to mention that we compared the ethnic groups on the use of fauna species; however, the effect of different ecological challenges in which the ethnic communities inhabit cannot be neglected, hence comparing the usage of species with different ecological requirements creates an indirect limitation of the present study.

Informed Consent Statement:
All the participants provided prior informed consent before the interviews. The ISE code of ethics was followed.
Data Availability Statement: All the obtained data is provided in the research article.