Beloved Whiskers: Management Type, Care Practices and Connections to Welfare in Domestic Cats

Simple Summary Little is known about the differences between indoor and outdoor cat management practices. Thus, our study investigated whether Brazilian cat owners’ management types were related to other cat care practices, the quality of human-animal interactions and cat welfare. We used social networks to distribute an online survey to cat owners. This survey included questions regarding owners’ sociodemographic data, type of management applied, cat care practices, and cat health and behavioral problems, as possible consequences of the management type. A total of 16,302 cat owners responded. Most (74.78%) owners reported providing indoor management for their cats; this corresponded to owners who lived in apartments and provided more cat care practices and interactions with their pets. Outdoor management was related to cats residing in farms or houses, sleeping outdoors, and having less interaction with their owners. We concluded that owners practicing indoor management were more likely to be closer to their cats than those reporting outdoor management, suggesting that the former may have more advantages related to closer human-animal relationships. It was noted, however, that indoor management was associated with obesity and owner-reported behavioral problems. Abstract The quality of cat care practices depends in part on the type of management applied, which either positively or negatively impacts cat welfare. This study investigated whether the type of cat management (indoor vs. outdoor) was related to other cat care practices adopted by cat owners, associated with the quality of human-cat relationships and cat welfare. An online survey was distributed via social networks. Descriptive statistics, categorical Principal Component Analysis, Fisher’s Exact test and Chi-square test in contingency table were applied. A total of 16,302 cat owners returned the survey. Most Brazilian owners reported indoor management of their cats; this was related to owners living in apartments, more frequent use of cat care practices, and more interactions with their pets. Outdoor management was related to cats living in houses or farms, sleeping outdoors or around the neighborhood, and owners had fewer interaction with their pets. In conclusion, owners practicing indoor management seemed to be closer to their cats than owners reporting outdoor management. However, obesity and owner-reported behavioral problems were associated with indoor management.

. Sociodemographic data of owners and their cats.

Association between the Management (Indoor vs. Outdoor) with Other Cat Care Practices
The relationships between management and care practices were initially analyzed using a multivariate exploratory technique, the categorical PCA. The first four principal components (PC) explained 54.58% of the total variance of the dataset (Supplementary Materials Table S3). PC1 explained 23.65% of the variance (eigenvalue 3.07) and had higher positive loadings for the type of management (indoor), reasons for outdoor management, availability of litter box, type of residence, cuts cats' claws, buys gifts and toys, brushes the cat, where the cat stays when the owner is at home and where the cat sleeps ( Figure 2A). PC2 explained 11.41% of the variance in the dataset (eigenvalue 1.48) and had higher positive loadings for where the cat stays when the owner leaves the house and frequency of the owner leaving the house.

Association between the Management (Indoor vs. Outdoor) with Other Cat Care Practices
The relationships between management and care practices were initially analyzed using a multivariate exploratory technique, the categorical PCA. The first four principal components (PC) explained 54.58% of the total variance of the dataset (Supplementary Materials Table S3). PC1 explained 23.65% of the variance (eigenvalue 3.07) and had higher positive loadings for the type of management (indoor), reasons for outdoor management, availability of litter box, type of residence, cuts cats' claws, buys gifts and toys, brushes the cat, where the cat stays when the owner is at home and where the cat sleeps (Figure 2A). PC2 explained 11.41% of the variance in the dataset (eigenvalue 1.48) and had higher positive loadings for where the cat stays when the owner leaves the house and frequency of the owner leaving the house. PC3 explained 10.65% of the variance (eigenvalue 1. 38), and the variables with higher positive loading were: where the cat stays when the owner is at home, where the cat sleeps, and plays with the cat. Variables with higher negative loadings were: type of management (indoor) and reason for outdoor management ( Figure 2B). Finally, PC4 explained 8.87% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.15), and variables with higher positive loadings were: brushes the cat, buys gifts and toys, and plays with the cat. The variable where the cat slept had higher negative loading. management (indoor), reasons for outdoor management, availability of litter box, type of residence, cuts cats' claws, buys gifts and toys, brushes the cat, where the cat stays when the owner is at home and where the cat sleeps ( Figure 2A). PC2 explained 11.41% of the variance in the dataset (eigenvalue 1.48) and had higher positive loadings for where the cat stays when the owner leaves the house and frequency of the owner leaving the house. The most common type of management reported was indoor (74.78%, 12,191/16,302). According to the Chi-square test (or Fisher's Exact), indoor management was significantly associated with a higher frequency of the following cat care practices: (a) residence in apartments; (b) cats adopted; (c) cats who sleep indoors, including in owner's room/bed; (d) when the owner is at home, the cat stays in the same place with owners, as the sofa or bed; (e) owners who leave the house regularly and the cat stays alone; (f) the cat stays indoor with access to all of the house when the owner leaves; (g) owners frequently buy gifts for the cat; (h) play with the cat once a day; (i) frequently cuts cat's claws; (j) brushes cat often; and (k) provides litter box, compared to cats kept outdoors (Table 1, comparison within each line).
Outdoor management was reported by 25.22% (4111/16,302) of owners. From owners reporting outdoor access, most (72.31%, 3176/4392) answered that the layout of their house did not enable them to limit the cats' movements, whereas 27.69% (1216/4392) considered this necessary and beneficial for the cat. There was a significant association between outdoor management and a higher frequency of the following answers: (a) households in houses or farms; (b) cats that appeared at owners' houses (i.e., stray cats that were taken in) or were given to them; (c) cats that slept outdoors or around the neighborhood; (d) the owner leaves, but the cat does not stay alone; (e) when the owner leaves, the cat stays outdoors or around the neighborhood; (f) occasionally buys gifts or cat toys; (g) play with the cat never or occasionally; (h) play with the cat several times a day; (i) does not cut cats claws, because it is not necessary; (j) does not brush the cat; and (k) does not provide litter box or provides it but the cat does not use, compared to indoor cats' owners (Table 1, comparison within each line).

Association between the Type of Management (Indoor vs. Outdoor) with Cat Welfare
The relationships between management with health and behavioral problems were first analyzed using a categorical PCA. The first five PC explained 39.13% of the total variance in the dataset (Supplementary Materials Table S3). PC1 explained 9.84% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.77) and had higher positive loadings for cat neutering, cat age, and body condition score (BCS), and the higher negative loadings were frequency of visits to the vet, use of therapeutic diet, and frequency of vaccination ( Figure 3A). PC2 explained 8.36% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.50), with higher positive loadings for the frequency of visits to the vet, frequency of vaccination, cat age, type of management (indoor), BCS, and the higher negative loading was inadequate elimination.

Association between the Type of Management (Indoor vs. Outdoor) with Cat Welfare
The relationships between management with health and behavioral problems were first analyzed using a categorical PCA. The first five PC explained 39.13% of the total variance in the dataset (Supplementary Materials Table S3). PC1 explained 9.84% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.77) and had higher positive loadings for cat neutering, cat age, and body condition score (BCS), and the higher negative loadings were frequency of visits to the vet, use of therapeutic diet, and frequency of vaccination ( Figure 3A). PC2 explained 8.36% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.50), with higher positive loadings for the frequency of visits to the vet, frequency of vaccination, cat age, type of management (indoor), BCS, and the higher negative loading was inadequate elimination. PC3 explained 7.65% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.38), with higher positive loadings for destructive behavior, agitation, aggression, vocalization, type of management indoors, and use of therapeutic diet ( Figure 3B). PC4, explaining 7.08% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.27), had the following variables with higher positive loadings: use of therapeutic diet, kidney diseases, urinary problems, and neutering; variables with higher negative loadings were destructive behavior and aggression. Finally, PC5 explaining 6.20% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.12), had higher loadings for cat sex, other health problems, kidney problems, fear, and BCS; and respiratory and urinary problems with higher negative loadings.
According to the Chi-square (or Fisher's) tests in contingency tables, indoor management was significantly associated with a higher frequency of destructive behavior, agitation, excessive fear, overweight and obesity, neutering, kidney problems, respiratory problems, other health problems, use of therapeutic diet, vaccination of the cat and visits to the vet, compared to outdoor cats ( Table 2, comparison within each line). In contrast, outdoor management was related to a higher frequency of inappropriate elimination of urine and feces and standard body condition. PC3 explained 7.65% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.38), with higher positive loadings for destructive behavior, agitation, aggression, vocalization, type of management indoors, and use of therapeutic diet ( Figure 3B). PC4, explaining 7.08% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.27), had the following variables with higher positive loadings: use of therapeutic diet, kidney diseases, urinary problems, and neutering; variables with higher negative loadings were destructive behavior and aggression. Finally, PC5 explaining 6.20% of the variance (eigenvalue 1.12), had higher loadings for cat sex, other health problems, kidney problems, fear, and BCS; and respiratory and urinary problems with higher negative loadings.
According to the Chi-square (or Fisher's) tests in contingency tables, indoor management was significantly associated with a higher frequency of destructive behavior, agitation, excessive fear, overweight and obesity, neutering, kidney problems, respiratory problems, other health problems, use of therapeutic diet, vaccination of the cat and visits to the vet, compared to outdoor cats ( Table 2, comparison within each line). In contrast, outdoor management was related to a higher frequency of inappropriate elimination of urine and feces and standard body condition.

Discussion
This study provided a survey regarding cat care practices and their relationship with cats' welfare, reported by a large owner sample. The majority (~75%) of owners reported maintaining their cats indoors. Among owners reporting outdoor management, most of them declared that their house did not provide physical or structural conditions to limit cats' movements. A lower percentage of owners reporting outdoor management justified that they allowed the cat to exit the house because it could be a healthy habit and positive for the cat, consistent with a previous study from our research group [7]. It was possible to classify the types of management and cat-owner interactions in two distinct and extreme styles. At one extreme, owners who maintained their cats indoors had a closer relationship with their cats, reported a higher frequency of cat care practices, such as brushing and cutting claws, plus more frequent clinical preventive care, characterizing a closer management style. At the other extreme, for owners who reported outdoor handling, their cats did not stay in the same places as the owners, the cats were kept outdoors when the owner left the house, and they reported a lower frequency of cat care practices, characterizing an extensive management style. We inferred that the style of management was characterized by a set of traits, including more than simply allowance of outdoor access.
In relation to the type of management and cat care practices, the first PCA revealed that the most important variables to characterize the variability in the management practices were: type of handling, followed by reasons for allowing outdoor access, type of residence, place where the cat slept, provision of litter box, the owner buys gifts and toys for the cat, brushes the cat and cuts claws. Indoor management was related to the variables higher frequency of residence in apartments, cats who sleep indoors including the owner's room/bed, owners provide litter boxes, buys gifts for the cat frequently, brushes the cat, and cuts cat's claws. Some previous studies identified residence as a factor that influenced the type of management [9,11]. Indoor management was related to areas with intense urbanization and apartments [9,11]. Conversely, outdoor cats were more frequent in areas with lower population densities, houses with yards, suburban and rural areas, all conditions in which it can be difficult to restrict cats' movements [9,11], consistent with the present study. It is important to highlight that the associations described in this study do not characterize cause and effect relationships. For instance, people that live in apartments are more likely to be in urban areas, which are unsuitable for an outdoor cat. Concerning the place within the house where the cat stays when the owner is at home, 93.6% of indoor cats were reported to stay in the same places as the owner (including sofas and beds), evincing a close human-animal contact. It is possible that in apartments, likely smaller places, cats spent more time with the owner, explaining in part these associations. For cats with few enrichment resources in small households, the owner becomes a valuable resource, considered a social-environmental enrichment, as suggested by previous studies [31,32]. For outdoor cats, the percentage was also high (85%) but lower than indoor animals. For outdoor cats, the frequencies of animals who stayed outdoors or indoors but not in the same places as humans were higher than indoor cats. In fact, some studies suggested that how cats establish bonds and interact with their owners might differ as a function of the space and resources available [32,33], which should influence owners' allowance and cats' choices of where to stay when owners are present.
In the second PC, variables with higher loadings were the place where the cat stayed when the owner left and the frequency with which the owner left the house, characterizing a component related to owner absence. Owners' frequency and duration of leaving the house can be characterized as a possible risk factor for separation-related problems [20]. For owners reporting indoor management, 44.2% of the participants left the house daily and their cats stayed alone. Perhaps for people living in apartments, there was a higher frequency of single occupants, which means the cat was left on its own more frequently. Most (85.8%) reported that the cats were left indoors with access to the entire house. Of the owners reporting outdoor management, only 28.6% left the cat alone daily, but 53.4% allowed the cats to have access to the entire house, whereas 27.4% left the cat outdoors when the owner was absent. These cats exposed to outdoor access, without the presence of the owner, could be more exposed to risks such as fights or accidents.
In PC3, variables with higher loadings were the place where the cat stayed when the owner was present, the place where the cat slept, the owner playing with the cat, type of management, and the reasons for allowing outdoor access. Owners reporting indoor management had a higher frequency of cats staying in the same place as the owner, playing with the cat once a day, and allowing cats to sleep in the owners' beds, characterizing a closer human-cat style of management. The owners reporting outdoor management had a higher frequency of cats staying outdoors when the owner was at home, cats sleeping outdoors, never or occasionally playing with the cat, or playing several times a day, compared to indoor cats, suggesting another extreme of the more extensive style of management. Despite the significant difference in the Chi-square test, the association between type of management and play with the cat was not straightforward, since owners of outdoor cats had higher frequencies for the lowest (never play) and the highest frequency of play (several times a week). Owners sharing their own bed or bedroom with their pets has become a common human behavior in modern society in various places of the world, revealing a closer relationship with these animals [34,35]. The choices of where to stay and sleep can also be related to cat's behaviors and preferences, not exclusively an owner's management decision. Our results corroborated previous findings reporting a higher frequency of human-animal interactions and closer contact for cats kept indoors [7,33]. Both of these aspects were related to a closer human-cat management style.
PC4 had higher loadings for some variables that had already contributed to other principal components, reinforcing their importance to characterize the management style. Variables such as where the cat slept, plays with the cat, buys gifts and toys for the cat, and brushes the cat had higher loadings in this PC. Aspects related to human-cat interactions have an important role in the welfare of both, and the quality and quantity of positive interactions result in cat welfare improvements in any context (i.e., household or shelters) [36]. Domestic cats can benefit from positive interactions with humans [31,37], and they can even perceive humans as part of their social environment [37][38][39]. It can be expected that positive interactions with owners (such as playing behavior) improve the welfare of both indoor and outdoor cats. In the first case, the lack of mental stimulation (typical of a captive environment) could promote boredom and frustration, requiring additional efforts to enrich the environment. However, positive contacts with a familiar human can be considered environmental enrichment for indoor cats. For outdoor cats, a previous study [7] reported that owners of free-roaming cats had lower frequency of positive interactions and close contacts with their cats and even neglected the necessity of interacting positively with them. According to Grigg and Kogan [7], an owner-cat bond score was significantly higher for indoor cats than for cats allowed to roam freely, which was also associated with a higher frequency of behavioral problems for outdoor cats. However, a causal relationship between outdoor management and behavioral problems was not established [7]. This can explain, in part, our results related to higher frequency of buying gifts and toys for the cat, cat care practices (brushes cat and cuts claws) and closer physical proximity (sharing the same places, like the sofa or bed) for cats defined in this study as having a closer management style, compared to the extensive management style. Even though brushing and cutting claws is aversive for some cats, both are recommended cat care practices, with welfare implications [40,41]. Brushing helps in removing dead hair and, consequently, avoids the formation of hairballs [41]. Although intolerable to some cats, cutting cats' claws reduces the risk of injuries from aversive interactions between cats in multi-cat houses. Claw trimming can be accepted by cats if done gently and from kittenhood [40,42]. Thus, all these interactions with outdoor cats could reinforce their bonds with humans.
A second PCA was applied for type of management in relation to physical and mental health (behavioral problems), generating five principal components. Although the percentage of variance explained by this analysis was not high (39.13%), relationships between variables on the PCs were interesting. In PC1, cat castration, age, BCS, use of therapeutic diet, frequency of visits to the vet, and vaccination were variables with higher loadings, characterizing a component related to cat health. The type of management had higher loadings in PC2, related to the frequency of visits to the vet, frequency of vaccinations, age, BCS, and inappropriate elimination. Owners reporting indoor management had higher frequencies of obesity and overweight scores in BCS, more visits to vet and higher frequency of cat vaccination, which could be related to more clinical preventative care in the indoor cats. Higher vet visit frequency for indoor cats may be associated with problems due to cat obesity and overweight. In PC3, there were higher loadings for behavioral problems such as aggressiveness, excessive vocalization, destructiveness, and agitation, in addition to the type of management and use of therapeutic diet, characterizing a relationship between the type of management and behaviors. Indoor cats had higher frequencies of destructiveness, agitation, and the use of therapeutic diet, compared to outdoor cats, but they did not differ for aggressiveness or excessive vocalization. The PC4 had some variables related to behaviors (destructiveness and aggression) and others related to physical health (use of therapeutic diet, kidney diseases, urinary problems, and neutering). However, it did not have any relationship with management. Finally, PC5 had higher loadings for cat sex, other health problems, kidney problems, fear, BCS, respiratory and urinary problems, but did not reveal any relation with the type of management.
The BCS had higher loadings in the first two PCs, representing an important characteristic related to the type of management and cat welfare. Cats kept indoors were more likely to be defined by their owners as overweight or obese. Conversely, owners reporting outdoor management were more likely to characterize their cats with the standard score. This result corroborated previous studies indicating that indoor cats were frequently associated with obesity, given the lack of stimulation and environmental predictability, which leads to a lower level of physical activity [22,23,43]. Another possible explanation could be that owners of indoor cats provided more treats as gifts, since they reported buying things for the cat more frequently, including sachets and snacks, in addition to toys, beds, or other gifts.
Clinical preventative care practices, such as frequent visits to the vet and frequent vaccinations, were also more frequent for cats maintained indoors. Neutering can also be considered a preventative practice, more frequently reported by owners of indoor than outdoor cats. Neutering was also related to cats' age, therapeutic diet, and other clinical preventative care practices in PC1 of the PCA, often conducted in domestic cats [44]. In a previous study conducted with Brazilian cat owners (n = 8485) in 2019, 65.7% of the owners declared having neutered their cats [11]. In the present study, the frequency of neutered cats was even higher (87.7%). The high frequency of neutering in the present study was probably due to the dissemination of its preventative benefits, such as avoiding unwanted pregnancies, reduction in cats' home ranges, reduction in reproductive tract diseases, and lower frequency of behavioral problems, e.g., urine marking [4,45,46]. It was reinforced by the association between neutering and other clinical preventative care practices (frequent visits to the vet and vaccinations). Owners declaring they do not neuter their cats also had lower chances of vaccinating and deworming their cats regularly, as reported in previous studies [11,45]. Possibly, it reflected a lack of concern about the possible consequences of not neutering or performing clinical preventative care, or even due to financial and/or cultural reasons [45].
Inappropriate elimination had higher negative loading in PC2, demonstrating a higher frequency for outdoor than indoor cats. This result was similar to a previous study reporting a higher frequency of inappropriate elimination for outdoor cats [45]. These findings should be related to urine marking, given that cats kept outdoors are more likely to have encounters with other conspecifics, and males tend to mark their territory vertically [47]. The frequency of neutering was lower in outdoor cats, what could also lead to more urine marking. Another plausible explanation was that house soiling could be considered unacceptable for owners, characterizing a possible motivation to maintain the cat outside the house. Based on the available data, it is impossible to know if inappropriate elimination was a consequence of or led to outdoor management. In PC2, cat age also had a higher loading, with a higher frequency of kittens and also of old cats for indoor than for outdoor cats. Perhaps the lethal risks related to outdoor management, such as car accidents [14,15], poisoning and mistreatment [4,16,24] or infectious diseases [4,11,24,48] could be related to the lower occurrence of cats >10 years old in outdoor management.
The PC3 had higher loadings for therapeutic diet and behavioral problems (aggressiveness, excessive vocalization, destructiveness, and agitation), most of them with higher frequency for indoor than outdoor cats. A possible explanation might be that owners could be more observant of cats' behaviors due to the proximity with them in indoor conditions. Previous studies have related indoor management with a higher risk of behavioral problems such as aggressiveness, agitation, excessive vocalization, inadequate elimination, apathy, destructiveness, and excessive fear [8,20,[49][50][51]. In general, captive environments tend to lack stimulation, being monotonous and predictable. Otherwise, indoor housing might include aversive stimuli for the cats, for example, lack of hiding places and exposure to unwanted interactions with unfamiliar humans, children, or other animals, without the possibility to escape when confined [23,49]. In those cases, owners must recognize cats' necessities and individuality to provide positive stimulation, protection from unwanted stimuli, environmental enrichment to prevent behavioral problems, and consequently improve cat welfare [52,53]. Despite lacking scientific support, routine outside walks using a leash have been recommended to provide positive mental stimulation and physical activity for some individuals habituated to this practice [40]. However, benefits of walking on a leash would depend on the cat's temperament, as this could be perceived as frightening for fearful and timid cats. Studies should be conducted to determine if there are benefits of walking on a leash for indoor cats to prevent behavioral problems and improve welfare.
The behavioral problems more frequently reported in cats kept indoors (destructiveness, and agitation) are usually characterized as indicative of behavioral disorders related to general anxiety [54,55]. Anxiety is characterized by intense and unpleasant sensations and feelings of anticipation of a danger stimulus not present [55,56]. When these behaviors occur during the owner's absence, they could indicate separation-related problems [20,57]. It is interesting to note that owners of indoor cats reported a higher frequency of them leaving the house on a daily basis and the cat staying alone during their absence, compared to outdoor cats. Thus, the possible association of indoor management with the likelihood of factors predisposing cats to separation-related problems must be further investigated [20,57]. For instance, the frequency of owners' absences and lack of environmental enrichment were factors previously related to the occurrence of separation-related problems in cats [20]. It is important to consider behavioral problems as the main cause of cats' abandonment and relinquishment in several countries, contributing to the high numbers of animals in shelters [58][59][60][61]. There are cases in which these animals can be euthanized if not adopted, reinforcing the necessity of investigations related to the risk factors of behavioral problems in owned cats [60][61][62].
The use of a therapeutic diet was related to most of the principal components of the PCA (except by PC2). This variable was related to health and behavioral problems and had higher frequency for indoor than outdoor cats. The use of therapeutic diet was related to kidney and urinary problems. Perhaps, for cats kept indoors, the owner would have more opportunities to observe cat urine and eliminatory behavior and perceive this kind of problem better than for cats kept outdoors, leading to this relationship. Additionally, therapeutic diet is also recommended for animals who are overweight and obese for weight control [63]; thus, indoor management could be more indirectly related to the therapeutic diet, given the higher occurrence of cats with excessive BCS.
This study had some limitations that must be acknowledged. Firstly, we could not collect data from owners without access to the internet, leading to bias in our sample. In Southeast Brazil, 84.8% of the houses have access to internet, whereas in the Northeast, only 69.1% have access, which might explain different sampling of these regions (Supplementary Materials Table S2). Our sample had an educational condition better than the average Brazilian population (Supplementary Materials  Table S2) which could be related to a better socioeconomic condition than the Brazilian population in general. It may also have affected our frequencies of responses about the type of management and cat care practices that can be dependent on several owner-related traits, including educational level and financial condition. For example, we speculate that an owner with a better economic situation would spend more money on preventative medical care for their cats. A second limitation was related to the subjectivity of the owner when answering some of the questions, mainly those related to health and behavioral problems. Some behaviors are normal for domestic cats (e.g., scratching), but could be perceived as a 'problem' by owners, leading them to report 'destructiveness'. Conversely, conditions less readily perceived, such as urinary and kidney problems, could be underestimated in the questionnaire. Another point is that the questionnaire did not include questions about the relationship between cats in multi-cat households and about the provision of environmental enrichment; these would have helped with interpretation of some results about the relationships between indoor management and behavioral problems. Regarding outdoor cats, it would be useful to include questions regarding the neighborhood's security, for example, proximity to streets or roads with heavy motor vehicle traffic. Despite all those limitations, the online questionnaire method enabled us to gather a large sample of owners, with a wide geographic coverage (all Brazilian states) and which, during a short interval, would not be feasible using other methodologies of data collection.
In summary, pet owners usually have strong emotional connections to their animals, even considering them part of their families [7,11,64,65]. Thus, they tend to provide protection, care, positive interactions, and comfort, leading to positive impacts on welfare [64]. However, not all owners are the same in terms of cat care practices and styles of management. They might vary depending on many cat-owner related aspects. Regardless of the style of management adopted by a cat owner, good cat care practices must be adopted. In this study, we identified traits that could be used to define styles of cat management ranging in a continuum, in which the two extremes were defined as close management and extensive management. Closer management did not necessarily mean 'positive management,' but the owners had more intense contact with their animals. Both management styles might lead to benefits and risks for cat welfare, impacting cats' quality of life. For example, closer management could compromise welfare as a function of how the cat perceives the close contact and interactions with humans, in addition to excessive predictability and lack of stimulation typical of a confined environment. Furthermore, it might lead to fear and anxiety, behavioral problems, and conflicts with conspecifics in multi-cat indoor environments [20,51,[66][67][68]. Other risks for cats kept exclusively indoors are obesity and domestic accidents [22,23,43]. In turn, whereas an extensive management style should present some benefits by stimulating natural behaviors, it also might impose risks if the care practices and necessity of protection are not considered. Cats that stay outdoors without owner oversight are more exposed to several potentially lethal conditions, e.g., motor vehicle accidents, mistreatment, fights with conspecifics, and dog attacks [11,12,14,16,43,69]. The close versus extensive management are examples of extremes and many owners may be in an intermediate part of this continuum.
There is little published information about cat management by Brazilian owners. This initial research is important to identify cat care practices in the sampled population and is useful in supporting responsible ownership education. Future research is recommended to further investigate the welfare implications of various management styles. In this study, management types were limited to indoor vs. outdoor, but alternative types between these two extremes should be considered, for example, cats allowed to roam free during the day but confined at night. It is also recommended that future studies collect a representative sample of the Brazilian population by including people without internet access.

Conclusions
Three quarters of the Brazilian cat owners sampled reported indoor cat management. Among those reporting outdoor management, the primary reason was the layout of their house, not allowing them to limit their cats' movements. We identified two different extreme styles of cat care practices and human-cat interactions. One extreme was characterized as a closer management style, reflected by owners who maintained their cats exclusively indoors. Those were more likely to report residing in apartments, the cat sleeping in the owner's room/bed, the cat staying in the same places as the owners when owners are at home (as sofa and beds), owners who leave the house regularly while their cat stays alone with access to all of the house, owners buy gifts and frequently brush the cat, cut claws more frequently and provide a litter box, compared to cats kept outdoors. The other extreme, characterized as extensive management style, reflected owners who maintained their cats outdoors, households in houses or farms, with the cat sleeping outdoors or around the neighborhood, when the owner leaves the house the cat does not stay alone, or the cat stays outdoors when the owner leaves, and owners only occasionally buying gifts or toys. These owners did not cut claws, nor brush, and did not provide litter boxes. Clinical preventative care practices (frequent visits to the vet, frequent vaccinations, and neutering) were more frequent for indoor cats. Finally, cats maintained indoors had higher frequencies of owner-reported behavioral problems and obesity, whereas outdoor cats had a higher frequency of inappropriate elimination. Thus, both management styles offer risks and benefits to cats' welfare and the human-cat relationship. It is necessary, regardless of the type of management adopted, to meet cats' requirements and good care practices to avoid welfare problems associated with each management style.